AP World History

What were the causes of the Russian Revolution (1917)?

Czar Nicholas II abdicated the Russian throne in February of 1917, ending nearly 300 years of Romanov rule. His abdication was the result of decades of political, social and economic unrest exacerbated by Russia’s involvement in World War I.

Describe the October Revolution and some of the changes made by the new government.

This was the second part of the Russian Revolution, led by Vladimir Lenin and his Bolshevik party. The Bolsheviks, who were students of Marx, put forth the idea that the proletariat (working class) would rise up against the bourgeoisie. When the Bolsheviks took control of the Petrograd Soviet in October 1917, they began efforts to transform the political and economic landscape of the nation; Russia pulled out of WWI, and legislation was passed to redistribute land to the peasants. Russia was also renamed the USSR, and became the world’s first communist nation.

Describe some of the causes and outcomes of the Chinese Revolution of 1911.

A revolution in 1911 led to the abdication of the last emperor of China and marked the end of the Qing dynasty. The overthrow was a result of the ride of revolutionary and nationalistic feelings across China. Sun Yat-sen, a western educated reformer, led the revolutionary movement based on the Three Principles of the People and declared a Chinese Republic in 1912. However, the new government lacked stability, and soon a civil war broke out between the Nationalists and Communist parties. Ultimately the Communist forces triumphed and created the People’s Republic of China in 1949.

Describe some of the factors that led many to call the Ottoman Empire the “Sick Man of Europe” by the beginning of the 20th century.

Political corruption and an unwillingness to change limited the Ottoman Empire’s ability to compete with the West. By the 1800’s, the Ottoman Empire was steadily losing territory and battling the forces of nationalist (Greece, then Serbia declared independence from the empire). Reform attempts such as the Tanzimat Reforms, focused on modernizing the military, threatened tradition and were met with resistance from groups such as the Janissaries and religious conservatives.

How does the Mexican revolution of 1911 fit the political trend of New States challenging existing political and social order at the turn of the 20th century?

After Mexico gained independence from Spain in the early 1800s, it quickly fell under the control of a series of dictators. General Porfirio Diaz ruled Mexico in the early 20th century and although he helped improve the economy, Mexico was suffering socially. Mexican nationalists, including Emiliano Zapata and Pancho Villa, gained support from the peasants and together with the middle class, overthrew Diaz in 1911. Reforms such as land redistribution, increased rights for workers and women, and universal suffrage all reflected the new ways in which people demanded more of their governments in the time period.

What were the major "long term" causes of WWI (The Great War)?

The "long term" causes of World War I included imperialist expansion and competition for resources. In addition, territorial and regional conflicts combined with a flawed alliance system and intense nationalism to escalate the tensions into global conflict. (M.A.I.N.)

What was the "immediate cause" (spark) of World War I (The Great War)?

In June of 1914, while on a visit to Sarajevo (Bosnia) Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, was assassinated by a Serbian nationalist. Almost immediately, Germany pledged its support to Austria-Hungary, which declared war on Serbia a month later. Russia mobilized forces against Austria-Hungary in support of Serbia. A few days later, Germany declared war on Russia and then on France. Following the German invasion of Belgium, Britain declared war on Germany, and World War I (The Great War) was well under way.

What is "Total War", and why is WWI described by historians as a "Total War"?

A "Total War" includes the use of all of a nation's resources toward the war effort. Both the civilian and military populations mobilize to defeat an enemy. During World War I, governments used a variety of strategies, including political propaganda, art, media, and intensive forms of nationalism to mobilize populations (both in home countries and colonies) for the purpose of waging war. This also meant that a significant consequence of Total War was the targeting of civilian populations and the cities they lived in.

Describe some of the new technologies used during World War I and the resulting consequences.

World War I was the world's first truly modern war. New weapons such as heavy artillery, machine guns, poison gas, U-Boats, airplanes, battleships, and tanks revolutionized warfare. Combatants no longer charged onto the battlefield and instead trench warfare developed. The destructive power of the new technology increased casualties significantly and devastated landscapes (military deaths are sometimes estimated as high as 10 million).

Describe the post WWI landscape (think contextualization).

Cities throughout Europe were destroyed and millions had died. Although some European nations emerged victorious and maintained their vast empires, the process of decolonization was underway due to an significant increase in nationalist feelings throughout the colonial world. The Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires were broken up and redistributed. The Treaty of Versailles was negotiated between the allies and Germany and the League of Nations was created in hopes of avoiding future wars (it was weak though!). WWI ended with many nations dissatisfied, and this sense of unhappiness would ultimately play a role in the rise of WWII.

Describe the Great Depression and its causes.

In 1929, economic depression spread across the world as the U.S. stock market crashed and European countries struggled to rebuild their damaged postwar economies. Both during and after WWI, the US lent millions of dollars to other nations and thus became the banking capital of the world. After WWI, nations struggled to repay their debts. In October 1929, speculation that stocks were being overvalued led to a crash of the market; banks in the US and abroad closed and millions of individuals were forced into bankruptcy. Ultimately, extreme forms of government would arise in many nations as a result.

How did Governments intervene in the economy (Post WWI)\*

Following World War I and the onset of the Great Depression, governments began to take a more active role in economic life. (e.g. - The New Deal, The fascist corporatist economy, Governments with strong popular support in Brazil and Mexico)

How did the Soviet Union intervene in the Russian economy following WWI?

In the Soviet Union, the government controlled the national economy through the Five Year Plans, often implementing repressive policies, with negative repercussions for the population. The first of the five-year plans focused on heavy industry and rapid industrialization in areas such as coal and iron production. Quotas were not met, yet Joseph Stalin still claimed the first plan a success, even though the Soviet Union's neglect of consumer goods led to scarcity of these products. Though the results were mixed over the course of Stalin's leadership, the Soviet Union was transformed into a leading industrialized nation.

Describe Fascism and the ingredients that led to its rise.

Fascism was characterized by extreme nationalism and state control over all aspects of life, emphasizing the health of the state over the individual. Following WWI and the Great Depression, governments began to take a more active role in economic life. Fascism emerged in both Italy and Germany in the interwar period. Both nations were faced with economic depression and in desperate need of strong leaders (Italy - Mussolini, Germany - Hitler). Powerful dictators emerged, greatly influenced by fascist ideology.

How did the Paris Peace Conference help contribute to unresolved tensions Post WWI?

The Allied nations met in Paris in 1919 to settle peace terms with the Central powers. During this meeting President Woodrow Wilson of the USA proposed his fourteen points, including an end to secret alliances, the promotion of free trade, decolonization, self-determination, and the establishment of a League of Nations. However, David Lloyd George of Britain and Georges Clemenceau of France, sought to punish the losers, in particular Germany. This fact led to a treaty that established an unstable peace and within a generation another world war was once again on the horizon.

What was the Mandate System and how did it help contribute to unresolved tensions Post WWI?

An article in the covenant of the League of Nations that stated colonies and territories needed assistance as they prepared for self-government and that more "advanced" nations would act as guides for the less "experienced" ones. Mandates were established in the former German colonies and territories.

Describe continuities and changes that occurred in colonial territory holdings (Post WWI)\*

Between the two world wars, Western and Japanese imperial states predominantly maintained control over colonial holdings; in some cases, they gained additional territories through conquest or treaty settlement. (e.g. - Transfer of former German colonies to Great Britain and France under the system of League of Nations mandates, Manchukuo/Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere)

How and where did nationalist groups lead Anti-Imperial Resistance (Post WWI)\*

Influenced by Western ideas, struggling for self-determination and/responding to European imperialism led to a rise in nationalism across the globe after WWI. (e.g. - Indian National Congress, West African resistance (strikes/congresses) to French rule)

What were the major causes of World War II?

The causes of World War II included the unsustainable peace settlement after World War I, the global economic crisis engendered by the Great Depression, continued imperialist aspirations, and especially the rise to power of fascist and totalitarian regimes that resulted in the aggressive militarism of Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler. (Additional examples of militaristic aggression: Japan's invasion of Manchuria, Italy's invasion of Ethiopia). Each was a violation of the League of Nations, but was met with appeasement by many European nations wishing to avoid another world war.

Describe the weaknesses of the Treaty of Versailles and the resulting consequences.

The Treaty of Versailles was developed during the Paris Conference following WWI between the Allied powers and Germany. It was focused on ensuring that Germany would never again be a threat to the security of Europe. The War-Guilt clause required Germany to accept complete responsibility for the war. The treaty also led to significant territory losses by Germany. Germany was also forbidden from having any significant military forces, such as battleships, heavy artillery, or submarines. The treaty caused resentment towards the new German government amongst many Germans, as it was blamed for accepting such unfair terms, and ultimately played a role in the failure to create a lasting peace following WWI.

Why is World War II considered a Total War?

World War II was a total war. Governments used a variety of strategies, including political propaganda, art, media, and intensified forms of nationalism, to mobilize populations (both in the home countries and the colonies or former colonies) for the purpose of waging war. Governments used ideologies, including fascism and communism to mobilize all of their state's resources for war and, in the case of totalitarian states, to repress basic freedoms and dominate many aspects of daily life during the course of the conflicts and beyond.

What were some of the new technologies and strategies used to wage WWII?

New military technology and new tactics, including the increased importance of aircraft carriers and fighter jets, the development and use of the atomic bomb, fire-bombing, the German use of "blitzkrieg" and the waging of "total war" led to increased levels of wartime casualties.

Who were the Axis and Allied Powers?\*

Axis Powers Headed By: Germany, Italy, and Japan \n Allied Powers Headed By: Great Britain, France, Soviet Union, United States, and China

What led to many of the mass atrocities perpetrated during the 20th century?\*

The rise of extremist groups in power led to the attempted destruction of specific populations, notably the Nazi killing of the Jews in the Holocaust during World War II, and to other atrocities, acts of genocide, or ethnic violence. (e.g. - Armenians in Ottoman Empire during and after WWI, Cambodia during the 1970's, Tutsi in Rwanda in the 1990s, Ukraine in the Soviet Union in the 1920s and 1930s)

What is the Scientific Revolution?

It is a major change in European thought, starting in the mid-1500s, in which the study of the natural world began to be characterized by careful observation and the questioning of accepted beliefs.

1687 (HUB Date) \n Newton published his 'Universal Law of Gravitation'

Represents the end of the era known as the Scientific Revolution. For over a century prior, various scientists focusing mostly on the field of astronomy had provided the foundation to Newton's laws of gravity. Some of these scientists are Copernicus, Kepler, Brahe, Galileo and Bacon. These laws of gravity will provide a structured, logical explanation of the natural world which will work to inspire the later Enlightenment.

What was the Enlightenment and how did it come to be?

In the mid 1700s, as science began to predict and explain phenomena, it led to development of social sciences. It celebrated the power of human reason, argued that rational thought could create progress and knowledge and control over one's own life and society.

1748 (HUB Date) \n Baron de Montesquieu writes "The Spirit of the Laws"

Represents the height of the Enlightenment as writers and philosophers sought progress in human society using logic and reason. Here, Montesquieu was in favor of a constitutional system of government and the separation of powers, the ending of slavery, and the preservation of civil liberties and the law.

What were some of the effects of the Enlightenment?

Philosophers developed new political ideas about the individual, natural rights, and the social contract. The rise and diffusion of Enlightenment thought that questioned established traditions in all areas of life often preceded revolutions and rebellions against existing governments.

How did the Enlightenment look to reform society?

Enlightenment ideas and religious ideals influenced various reform movements. These reform movements contributed to the expansion of rights, as seen in expanded suffrage, the abolition of slavery, and the end of serfdom.

How did the Enlightenment impact gender rights?\*

While gender rights were ignored by many Enlightenment thinkers, some demands for women's suffrage and an emergent feminism challenged political and gender hierarchies during the Enlightenment. (e.g. - Mary Wollstonecraft's A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, Olympe de Gouges's Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen, Seneca Falls Conference (1848) organized by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott)

What was liberalism in the 19th C?

Unhappy with monarchs and empires, a new political ideology emerged that encouraged the development of systems of government that promoted rights and equality amongst citizens, including democracy. It developed in response to the Enlightenment and was a driving influence in all of the Atlantic Revolutions

Describe the Atlantic Revolutions.\*

Inspired by the Enlightenment and liberal thought, colonial subjects in the Americas and subjects to the French King and Queen led a series of rebellions inspired by democratic ideals. The American Revolution, successful separation from its colonial masters, was a model and inspiration for a number of the revolutions that followed. (e.g. other Atlantic Revolutions: French Revolution, Haitian Revolution, Latin American independence movements)

1789 (HUB Date) \n The French Revolution begins.

Represents the era of the Atlantic Revolutions. While the American Revolution comes before and the Revolutions in Haiti and Latin America will arise later, all deal with implementation of the ideals of the Enlightenment. All the revolutions sought to completely change the relationship between the rulers and those they governed and to redefine the nature of political power.

Identify the significant Revolutionary Documents inspired by the Enlightenment.

The ideas of Enlightenment philosophers, as reflected in revolutionary documents— including the American "Declaration of Independence" during the American Revolution, the French "Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen" during the French Revolution, and Bolívar's "Letter from Jamaica" on the eve of the Latin American revolutions— influenced resistance to existing political authority, often in pursuit of independence and democratic ideals.

Describe Nationalism.

People around the world developed a new sense of commonality/togetherness based on common language, religion, social customs, and territory. This was often harnessed by governments to foster a sense of unity in the time 1750-1900. After the early 1900s nationalism becomes an ugly force often used to inspire acts or racism, genocide, etc.

What were the impacts of nationalism in the period 1750- 1900? Calls for National Unification or Rebellion (c. 1750-1900)\*

Often there were demands and rebellions that called for national unification. These new national communities sharing common language, religion, and customs often desired to link their national identity with borders of their own state. Often these nationalists challenged boundaries or sought unification of fragmented regions. (e.g. - Balkan nationalisms, Maori nationalism and the New Zealand wars, Puerto Rico, German and Italian unifications, Ottomanism)

What was the Industrial Revolution?

It is a time from roughly mid 18th- late 19th Century as production changed from home based to factory based while the energy moved from human, animal and wind power to water and steam. Continued urbanization (often with disastrous effects) occurred as a developing middle class grew in size and stature. As a result of improved agricultural productivity and other factors, for the first time in history nations shifted from agricultural-based societies to ones based on manufacturing.

Where did the Industrial Revolution begin and why did it begin there?

It began in England thanks to the availability of workers, numerous natural resources (most notably coal, iron and timber), an expansive canal system and easily navigable rivers, a large number of wealthy individuals willing to invest capital in new businesses, and a government that encouraged entrepreneurship and protected private property.

1765 (HUB Date) \n James Watt invents the Steam Engine.

Represents the beginning of the Industrial Revolution. Here, the steam engine burns coal to boil water which forces a piston to turn a wheel that drives a mechanical device to perform work. By 1800, there were more than 1800 steam engines in Great Britain. The use of steam engines led to an increase in productivity and decrease in price for the consumer. Steam engines were prevalent in mining operations, textiles and in transportation (steamships)

Describe how industrial production spread around the world.

Industrialization was a gradual process that spread throughout Western Europe to Russia and then to the United States and Japan.

Describe the worldwide economic effects of the First Industrial Revolution.\*

The rapid development of steam-powered industrial production in European countries and the U.S. contributed to the increase in these regions' share of global manufacturing during the first Industrial Revolution. While Middle Eastern and Asian countries continued to produce manufactured goods, these regions' share in global manufacturing declined. (e,g. - Decline of Middle Eastern and Asian share in global manufacturing: Shipbuilding in India and Southeast Asia, Iron works in India, Textile production in India and Egypt)

What new energy sources developed during the Industrial Revolution?

The development of machines, including steam engines and the internal combustion engine, made it possible to take advantage of both existing and vast newly discovered resources of energy stored in fossil fuels, specifically coal and oil. The fossil fuels revolution greatly increased the energy available to human societies.

Describe the 'Second Industrial Revolution'.

The "second industrial revolution" led to new methods in the production of steel, chemicals, electricity, and precision machinery during the second half of the 19th century.

Describe the impacts of the transportation and communication innovations of the Industrial Revolution.\*

New innovations in transportation and communication made exploration, development, and communication possible in interior regions globally, which led to increased trade and migration. Eventually, these innovations will also allow European states to extend their control over places in Africa and Asia. (e.g. of innovations in transportation and communication: Railroads, steamships, and the telegraph)

How did industrialization grow outside of Europe?\*

As the influence of the Industrial Revolution grew, a small number of states and governments promoted their own state-sponsored (government supported) visions of industrialization. (e.g. - State-sponsored visions of industrialization: Muhammad Ali's development of a cotton textile industry in Egypt, Meiji Restoration in Japan)

Describe the Meiji Restoration in Japan.

Following 200 years of self-isolation, the expansion of U.S. and European influence in Asia led to internal reform in Japan that supported industrialization and led to the growing regional power of Japan in the Meiji Era (1868-1912). In an effort to maintain their national identity, Japan undertook this intensive effort to modernize and industrialize and to keep western influence away.

1857 (HUB Date) \n Marks the beginning of the Meiji Restoration.

Represents the beginning of an era of a growing and heightened nationalism around the world. While this specific example refers to Japan, in the 30 years after this time examples of nationalism can be seen in Italian and German Unification, the American Civil War, Ottomanism, Russification and the Indian National Congress.

Describe how industrialization changed the dominant trading practices in the era 1750-1900.\*

Western European countries began abandoning mercantilism and adopting free trade policies, partly in response to the growing acceptance of Adam Smith's theories of laissez-faire capitalism and free markets. (e.g. - Financial Instruments: Stock markets, Limited-liability corporations)

Describe how industrialization changed the nature and organization of business in the era 1750-1900.\*

Corporations were established to help raise funds from multiple individuals to support factories, thereby creating a business owned by stockholders who invested in it.. The global nature of trade and production contributed to the proliferation of large-scale transnational businesses that relied on new practices in banking and finance. (e.g. - Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation (HSBC), Unilever based in England and the Netherlands and operating in British West Africa and the Belgian Congo).

Describe how world-wide industrialization impacted the Middle East and Asian economies.\*

The rapid development of steam-powered industrial production in European countries and the United States contributed to the increase in these regions' share of global manufacturing. While Middle Eastern and Asian countries continued to produce manufactured goods, these regions' share of global manufacturing declined. (e.g. - Shipbuilding in India and Southeast Asia was thwarted by the arrival of the British who took over production, Ironworks in India were impacted by the British who shut down mines, textile production in India and Egypt was largely moved to England. India and Egypt were largely removed to become 'banana republic' to produce a single cash crop (cotton) for the benefit of British textile manufacturers.

How did governments react to the challenges created by 'Industrial Capitalism'?\*

Some governments promoted various types of political, social, educational, and urban reforms (e.g. reforms(eg. Government reforms: minimum wage, guaranteed retirement pension \[Social Security\])

How did organizations and individuals react to the challenges created by 'Industrial Capitalism'?

In industrialized states, many workers organized themselves, often in labor unions, to improve working conditions, limit hours, and gain higher wages. Workers' movements and political parties emerged in different areas, promoting alternative visions of society.

How did socialism develop as a reaction to industrialization?

Unhappy with existing forms of government and imperial rule, socialism spread across the globe. Originally, Utopian socialists believed that people should work for the creation of a perfect society with the equality of all. Over time, this idea was replaced with a more realistic approach encouraging workers to take control and create a classless society; this theory was articulated by Karl Marx and Fredrich Engels.

Describe the impact of Karl Marx and Marxism (communism).

A 19th Century philosopher, he developed an extreme version of socialism that called for a violent revolution from workers overthrowing the owner class and establishing a classless society. Marx's ideas were published in 1848 in a pamphlet called the Communist Manifesto. In 1917, Vladimir Lenin and his Bolsheviks took control of Russia and created the first communist state. Building off of Marx, Lenin's views of the evils of Capitalism influenced movements all over Europe. After World War II, a number of nations adopted Marxism including China, Vietnam and Cuba.

How did China react to the movement of world-wide industrialization in the late 1900s?

Following a series of unequal treaties and internal rebellions, the Qing (Ching) Dynasty (ruled China from mid 1600s-1911) enacted the "Self-Strengthening Movement" which attempted to introduce western technology in the hopes of modernizing the nation. It mostly failed as China remained an agrarian society centered on Confucian thought.

How did the growth of European wealth/power impact the Ottoman Empire?

In the late 1800s, the Ottoman empire was now smaller, weaker, and in debt became known as the "Sick Man of Europe. Threatened by Austria and Russia and manipulated by the British and French, the Ottomans were often not in control of their own destiny. By 1900, the Ottomans attempted a series of reforms for modernization called "Ottomanism". These reforms were largely unsuccessful.

Describe the impact of industrialization on social class structure.

New social classes, including the middle class and the industrial working class, developed. The development of industrial capitalism led to increased standard of living for some, and continued improvements in manufacturing increased the availability, affordability and variety of consumer goods.

How did gender roles change in the Industrial Age?

Women, who in agrarian societies worked on the farm, often saw their roles change during industrialization. While women and often children in working class families typically held wage-earning jobs to supplement their families' income, middle-class women who did not have the same economic demands to satisfy were increasingly limited to roles in the household or roles focused on child development.

Describe the impacts of the rapid movement of people from rural settings to urban settings c. 1750-1900.

The rapid urbanization that accompanied global capitalism at times led to a variety of challenges, including pollution, poverty, increased crime, public health crises, housing shortages, and insufficient infrastructure to accommodate urban growth.

How did Spain establish and extend its influence over its colonies in the Americas (Latin America)?\*

Often using lethal and horrific methods, Spanish 'conquistadors' will wage direct and indirect war against indigenous populations. Once defeated, indigenous populations left alive would be forced into various coerced labor systems in an attempt to extract resources from the land. (e.g. Examples of Conquistadors: Hernán Cortés, Fransisco Pizzaro

(HUB Date) 1532 CE \n Fall of Incan Empire to Pizzaro.

Represents the era when Maritime Empires begin to dominate regions around the world. Here, Spain takes control of the one of the most powerful and advanced civilizations of the Americas and begins the genocide of an entire people. Consequently, Spain will take control of one of the largest silver deposits in the world. Within a decade or so East Asian states will begin to isolate themselves from interactions with Maritime Empires.

Describe the economies established in the Americas by Maritime Empires in the time c. 1450-1750.\*

Newly developed colonial economies in the Americas largely depended on agriculture, using existing forced labor systems or developing new ones.. These forced labor systems were used in either cash crop cultivation or the extraction of natural resources (particularly silver). (e.g. Examples of labor systems: the Incan mit'a system now run by the Spanish, and new labor systems including chattel slavery, indentured servitude, and encomienda and hacienda systems.)

How did the establishment of Maritime Empires and continued growth of long-distance trade impact Africa in the time c. 1450-1750?

The expansion of maritime trading networks fostered the growth of states in Africa, including the Asante and the Kingdom of the Kongo, whose participation in trading networks led to an increase in their influence.

How did East Asian states react to the increased presence of European maritime powers in the region c. 1450-1750?

Following the Portuguese arrival in Japan in 1543, European powers began to attempt to establish commercial relationships in East Asia. This was later followed by the arrival of Christian missionaries who sought to convert the indigenous people of East Asia. Fearing foreign cultural influence, Japan developed a policy of isolationism beginning in the 1600s. Similarly, the Ming Dynasty in China established economic policies that regulated interaction with outsiders. The Ming also established a tax policy that allowed for payment in silver only, fueling China's demand for silver and a frenzied drive to supply it by European maritime powers.

What was the status of the Indian Ocean Trade Network in the time c. 1450-1750?\*

Despite some disruption and restructuring due to the arrival of Portuguese, Spanish, and Dutch merchants, existing trade networks in the Indian Ocean continued to flourish and included intra-Asian trade and Asian merchants. (e.g. - Indian Ocean Asian merchants: Swahili Arabs, Omanis, Gujaratis, Javanese)

Describe the African diaspora as a result of the Atlantic Slave Trade.

With the forced migration of millions of Africans to the New World, African culture spread throughout the Americas, contributing to cultural synthesis. Various languages spoken by Africans were combined with European languages to create new languages or dialects. African traditions blended with those in the Americas, such as in the areas of storytelling and music. New syncretic religious beliefs also emerged such as Vodoun and Obeah.

Describe Mercantilism and how it was employed by maritime empires.

Mercantilism was an economic system that attempted to develop a positive balance of trade while identifying the world economic model as a zero sum game. Mercantilist policies and practices were used by European rulers to expand and control their economies and claim overseas territories. Taxes on imports (tariffs), joint-stock companies, influenced by these mercantilist principles, were used by rulers and merchants to finance exploration and were used by rulers to compete against one another in global trade.

(HUB Date) 1600-1602 \n British and Dutch East India Companies founded.

Represents the era when European maritime powers began to dominate the world economy. Europeans were past the effort to simply access the major global trade routes. They have developed their own economic system (mercantilism) and economic innovations (joint stock companies) that demonstrate that they are the dominant force in global trade. These two companies, separate from their own countries' governments, will have larger private militaries and wealth than most other countries in the world.

Describe the Atlantic trading system in the time c. 1450-1750.

The fourth great long-distance trade route is established that connects the Americas to the Afro-Eurasian economies. The Atlantic trading system involved the movement of goods, precious metals, and labor, including enslaved people. This is often known as the Triangular Trade. Since this a three sided trade route, the route between Africa and the Americas often transported kidnapped Africans intended to be used as slave on plantations. This portion of the trading system is called the Middle Passage.

What was the demographic impact on Africa resulting from the birth of the Atlantic Slave Trade in the time 1450-1750?

The kidnapping and export of so many millions, particularly men, impacted family life, and in many of the areas from which people were stolen, there tended to be majority female populations. The European use of chattel slavery also led to an increase in intertribal warfare, and over time, the dissolution of once powerful kingdoms, especially those located along the coast. However, despite the export of so many Africans, the population did not decrease on the continent, as the introduction of new food crops from the Americas helped stabilize the population.

Describe the flow of goods throughout the global economy in the time c. 1450-1750.

The new global circulation of goods was facilitated by chartered European monopoly companies and the global flow of silver, especially from Spanish colonies in the Americas, which was used to purchase Asian goods for the Atlantic markets and satisfy Chinese demand for silver. Regional markets continued to flourish in Afro-Eurasia by using established commercial practices and new transoceanic and regional shipping services developed by European merchants.

Describe the cultural synthesis that developed as a result of the establishment of maritime empires c. 1450-1750.\*

The Atlantic trading system involved the movement of labor--including enslaved people--and the mixing of African, American, and European cultures and peoples, with all parties contributing to this cultural synthesis. In some cases, the increase and intensification of interactions between newly connected hemispheres expanded the reach and furthered the development of existing religions, and contributed to religious conflicts and the development of syncretic belief systems and practices. (e.g. - Vodoun, Obeah, Dia de Los Muertos)

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Describe the continuity of the labor systems in Afro-Eurasia in the time c. 1450-1750?\*

Peasant and artisan labor continued and intensified in many regions as the demand for food and consumer goods increased. (e.g. - Increased peasant and artisan labor: Western Europe--wool and linen, India--cotton, China--silk)

How did conquered people react to the expansion of territory by Maritime Empires in the time c. 1450-1750?\*

State expansion and centralization led to resistance from an array of social, political, and economic groups on a local level. (e.g. Local Resistance: Pueblo Revolts, Fronde, Cossack revolts, Maratha Conflict with Mughals, Ana Nzinga's resistance (as ruler of Ndongo and Matamba), Metacom's War (King Philip's War)

How did enslaved people react to the expansion of control by Maritime Empires in the time c. 1450-1750?\*

Slave resistance challenged existing authorities in the Americas. (e.g. - Slave Resistance: The establishment of Maroon societies in the Caribbean and Brazil, North American slave resistance)

As both Land-Based and Maritime-Based Empires expanded their territory, how did they deal with the ever-growing cultural diversity of their populations in the time c. 1450-1750?\*

Many states, such as the Mughal and Ottoman empires, adopted practices to accommodate the ethnic and religious diversity of their subjects or to utilize economic, political, and military contributions of different ethnic or religious groups. In other cases, states suppressed diversity or limited certain groups' roles in society, politics, or the economy. (e.g. - Expulsion of Jews from Spain and Portugal; the acceptance of Jews in the Ottoman Empire, Restrictive policies against Han Chinese in Qing China, Varying status of different classes of women within the Ottoman Empire)

How did the new trade and economic system impact social class in the time c. 1450-1750?

Imperial conquests and widening global economic opportunities contributed to the formation of new political and economic elites, including in China with the transition to the Qing Dynasty and in the Americas with the rise of the Casta system, and burgeoning middle class in Europe.

Describe the changing influence of elites throughout land-based and maritime empires in the time c. 1450-1750.\*

The power of existing political and economic elites fluctuated as the elites confronted new challenges to their ability to affect the policies of the increasingly powerful monarchs and leaders. (e.g. - Existing Elites: Ottoman timars, Russian boyars, European nobility)

How did Land-Based empires expand their territory in the time c. 1450-1750?

Imperial expansion relied on the increased use of gunpowder, cannons, and armed trade to establish large empires in both hemispheres.

Describe the rise and expansion of the Ottoman Empire.

With the fall of the Mongol Khanate (kingdom) on the Arabian peninsula in the mid 1300s, the Ottoman royal family led the turkic nomads (Sunni Muslims) of Central Asia to come to dominate much of the Muslim world. Ottoman military success and expansion came from their command of gunpowder. By the mid 1500s, led by Suleiman the Magnificent, the Ottoman empire was the largest and most powerful land empire in Europe and the Middle East. The empire quickly expanded their control to the Balkans and North Africa. Often tension with the Safavid to their east would lead to conflict.

(HUB Date) 1453 CE \n Ottomans seized Constantinople.

Represents the beginning of the era of Land-Based empires using gunpowder and other methods to expand and maintain control of their empires. Here, the Muslim Ottomans, push into the Christian European continent demonstrating the supremacy of Muslim technology. With the competition, the Ottomans cutoff European access to goods from the various long-distance trade routes causing Europeans to look for access to these trade routes elsewhere.

Describe the rise and expansion of the Mughal Empire.

This Islamic (Sunni) empire was established in India following the defeat of the Delhi Sultanate in 1526 by Babar, largely due to their command of gunpowder. During the pinnacle of the empire, Akbar the Great unified much of the Indian subcontinent, employing religious tolerance in an attempt to rule the Hindu majority of the subcontinent without dissent (eliminated jizya or "head tax" imposed on non-Muslims). Islamic art and architecture flourished under the Mughals, as evidenced by the building of the Taj Mahal.

Describe the rise and expansion of the Safavid Empire.

Following a war against the Ottoman Turks in 1514, the Safavid family consolidated their control over modern-day Iran and ruled until 1736. They established the Shi'a sect of Islam as the official religion of the empire. Under Shah Abbas the Great, the army was modernized and long-distance trade flourished. Like other absolute rulers, Abbas sought to strengthen his power and expand central authority at the expense of the nobility. Constant conflict with the Ottomans, coupled with the threat of an increasingly stronger Russian Empire to the north and the Mughal Empire to the south led to ongoing conflict.

Describe the rise and expansion of the Manchu Empire (Qing Dynasty).

Manchus from the north (non-Han peoples) invaded China and claimed the "Mandate of Heaven" in 1644 and ruled until 1911. The majority Chinese (Han) population saw the Manchu as a "foreign" dynasty. The Qing, following the political example of the Ming, ruled through a highly centralized system of Confucian scholar-bureaucrats. The Qing were great patrons of the arts and were responsible for expanding the empire.

What methods did rulers of Land-Based Empires use to administer (run) their government in the time c. 1450-1750?\*

Recruitment and use of bureaucratic elites, as well as the development of military professionals, became more common among rulers who wanted to maintain centralized control over their populations and resources. (e.g. Ottoman devshirme, Salaried Samurai)

What methods did rulers of Land-Based empires use to legitimize and justify their power in the time c. 1450-1750?\*

Rulers continued to use religious ideas, art, and monumental architecture to legitimize their rule. (e.g. Religious ideas: Mexica practice of human sacrifice, European notion of divine rights of monarch,) (e.g. Art & Monumental Architecture: Qing imperial portraits, Incan Sun Temple of Cuzco, Mughal Taj Mahal, European palaces, such as Versailles)

What methods did rulers of Land-Based empires use to raise money to pay for their expansion in the time c. 1450-1750?\*

Rulers used tribute collection, tax farming, and innovative tax-collection systems to generate revenue in order to forward state power and expansion (e.g. Tax-collection systems: Mughal zamindar tax collection, Ottoman tax farming, Mexica tribute lists, Ming practice of collecting taxes in hard currency)

Describe the Renaissance.

A "rebirth" of Greco-Roman culture (arts and intellectual pursuits) in Europe that lasted from the 1300s through the 1500s. It reflected the spirit of individualism though the growth of humanism and encouraged a split from religious-based thinking and a focus on things of this world (secularism). This "rebirth" was largely possible due to the interconnectivity of the world created by the focus of Dar al-Islam on collecting and expanding upon the world's knowledge and the Pax Mongolica. This will become the seed that will cause Europeans to question the preexisting order of the feudal world they existed in.

Describe the Protestant Reformation and its consequences.

In 1517, Martin Luther wrote the Ninety-five Theses, a list of arguments directed against the Roman Catholic Church's practice of selling indulgences (pardoning of sins) and corruption amongst the clergy. The Reformation spread across northern Europe creating a schism within the Catholic church. A new branch of Christianity, Protestantism, developed and spread as a result. In response, the Counter-Reformation led to reforms within the Catholic church. Both reform movements led to the spread of Christianity. Often political leaders used this religious conflict to further and centralize their authority.

(HUB Date) 1618-1648 \n Thirty Years War (Ottoman Safavid War 1623-1639)

While this represents an ongoing wars of land-based empires, more importantly it represents conflict between schisms in Christianity and Islam. The Thirty Years War was a long lasting conflict between Catholics and Protestants while the Ottoman-Safavid War was a struggle between Sunni and Shi'a \n However, both religious conflicts mask a political struggle with European monarchs struggling to take influence away from Catholic Church and the Ottoman and Safavid royal families battling each other.

How and why did Sikhism develop in South Asia (modern-day India) in the time c. 1450-1750?

Sikhism developed in South Asia in a context of interactions between Hinduism and Islam. Religions and religious teachers do not exist in a vacuum: India, at this time, was ruled by Mughal emperors who were Muslim and society was a mix of Muslims and Hindus.

What were the sources/origins of the innovations that made Europe's Age of Exploration possible?

Knowledge, scientific learning, and technology from the Classical, Islamic, and Asian worlds spread, facilitating European technological developments and innovation.

What were some of the maritime technologies that helped usher in Europe's Age of Exploration?\*

The developments included the production of new tools, innovations in ship designs, and an improved understanding of regional wind and current patterns--all of which made transoceanic travel and trade possible. (e.g. Innovations in ship design: Caravel, Currack, Fluyt, Dhows e.g. Navigational technologies: Lateen Sail, Magnetic Compass, Astronomical charts, Sternpost Rudder)

Describe Portugal's role in Maritime Exploration c. 1450-1750.

Portugal's government funded a development of navigational technology in order to establish a trading-post empire. Portugal established trade-posts (small port cities on the coast... not colonization) along both the western and eastern shore of Africa and India in order to access the trade goods of the Indian Ocean Trade Network. This was a reaction to the denial of access by the Ottoman Empire to trade goods imported via land routes.

Describe Spain's role in Maritime Exploration c. 1450-1750.

Following the reconquista (retaking of Islamic Spain by Christian monarchs) the Spanish crown sponsored the voyages of Columbus and subsequent voyages across the Atlantic and Pacific, eventually establishing colonies in the Americas. These state sponsored voyages dramatically increased European interest in transoceanic travel and trade.

(HUB Date) 1492 CE \n Columbus sailed the "Ocean Blue".

Represents the beginning of the era of Maritime empires (think European states) looking to the ocean to establish new trade routes to access the traditional long-distance trade routes. This begins the slow rise of European political, economic and military power across the globe.

Describe the English and French role in Maritime Exploration c. 1450-1750 c. 1450-1750.

Northern Atlantic crossings were undertaken under English and French sponsorship, often with the goal of finding alternative sailing routes to Asia. The English and French eventually established colonies in North America and the Caribbean islands. The French largely focused their activities on the fur trade in what would become Canada while the English established settlement colonies along the east coast of what would later become the United States.

Describe the Columbian Exchange.

European colonization of the Americas led to the unintentional transfer of disease spreaders, including mosquitoes and rats, and the spread of diseases that were endemic in the Eastern Hemisphere, including smallpox, measles, and malaria. Some of these diseases substantially reduced the indigenous populations, with catastrophic effects in many areas.

Describe the role of crops of the Americas played within the Columbian Exchange.

American foods became staple crops in various parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Diets, life expectancy and standard of living improved in various parts of Afro-Eurasia. (e.g. Corn, Potatoes, Tomatoes, Rubber Tree, Yams)