UNIT 1 — PERIOD 1 REVIEW: 1491–1607

Vocabulary flashcards covering key terms, people, and concepts from the introduction to European encounters in the Americas (Topic 1.1–1.7).

Columbian Exchange

The widespread transfer of plants, animals, and germs between the Americas and the Old World that began after Columbus’s voyages, transforming diets, agriculture, populations, and ecosystems on both sides of the Atlantic.

Jamestown

The first permanent English settlement in North America, established in Virginia in 1607 and serving as the foundation for English colonial presence in the region.

Encomienda system

Spanish labor system in which the crown granted conquerors the right to extract labor and tribute from Indigenous people on assigned lands.

asiento

Spanish license or tax system allowing the importation of enslaved Africans to the Americas.

New Laws of 1542

Spanish reform decrees intended to end Indian slavery, curb forced labor, and began to dismantle the encomienda system.

Bartolomé de Las Casas

Spanish priest who argued for humane treatment of Native Americans and advocated reforms toward better Indigenous rights.

Valladolid Debate

Formal 1550–1551 dispute in Spain over the status and treatment of Indigenous peoples in the colonies.

Sepúlveda

Spanish priest who argued that Indigenous peoples were natural slaves and could be subjected to conquest and forced labor.

Conquistadores

Spanish soldiers-explorers who led the early conquests in the Americas (e.g., Cortés, Pizarro).

Hernán Cortés

Conquistador who led the conquest of the Aztec Empire in Mexico (1519–1521).

Francisco Pizarro

Conquistador who conquered the Inca Empire in Peru (1532–1533).

Mayas

Civilization in the Yucatán Peninsula (Mesoamerica) known for cities, calendars, and maize agriculture (300–800 CE).

Aztecs

Central Mexican empire with the capital at Tenochtitlán; large, sophisticated state with extensive trade and tribute systems.

Incas

Andean empire in western South America known for roads, terraces, and centralized administration.

Iroquois Confederation (Haudenosaunee)

A powerful alliance of Northeastern Native American nations (e.g., Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga, Oneida, Mohawk) formed to coordinate defense and politics.

Adena-Hopewell

Woodland culture in the Ohio Valley known for large earthworks and mound-building.

Cahokia

A major Mississippian city near present-day East St. Louis, Illinois, with tens of thousands of inhabitants.

Northwest Coast

Region from Alaska to Northern California with permanent longhouses, a rich diet, and totem poles.

Hohokam

Southwestern culture noted for extensive irrigation systems to support agriculture.

Anasazi

Ancestral Puebloans known for multi-story cliff dwellings and advanced farming in the Southwest.

Pueblos

Southwestern communities with multi-story adobe buildings and irrigation-based agriculture.

Great Basin

Arid region with mobile hunter-gatherer groups adapted to dry conditions and reliant on limited resources.

Great Plains

Grassland region whose inhabitants were highly mobile, depended on buffalo, and used tipis or lodges.

Tepees

Portable cone-shaped huts used by Plains tribes, especially after the introduction of the horse.

Line of Demarcation

1493 papal line drawn to divide the newly discovered lands outside Europe between Spain (west) and Portugal (east).

Treaty of Tordesillas

1494 agreement that moved the line west to resolve overlapping Spanish and Portuguese claims in the Americas.

Henry the Navigator

Portuguese prince who promoted exploration, sponsored voyages, and helped develop navigation schools.

Vasco da Gama

Portuguese navigator who reached India by sea in 1498, linking Europe to Asia via the Cape of Good Hope.

Christopher Columbus

Italian navigator sponsored by Spain who, in 1492, reached the Americas while seeking a westward route to Asia.

Renaissance

Cultural and intellectual movement in Europe that spurred innovations in science, navigation, and thinking about the world.

Printing press

Technological invention (movable type) that accelerated the spread of ideas, maps, and information relevant to exploration.

Gunpowder

Explosive powder that transformed warfare and navigation, contributing to European military advantages abroad.

Joint-stock company

Business organization pooling funds from many investors to finance expensive voyages with shared risk.

Capitalism

Economic system emphasizing private wealth, investment, and market-driven trade—accelerated by exploration and global exchange.

Smallpox

Old World disease introduced to the Americas that caused devastating Native population losses after contact.

Maize (corn)

A staple crop from the Americas that spread to Europe, Africa, and Asia, influencing global diets.

Potatoes

New World crop that became a staple in Europe and other regions, supporting population growth.

Tomatoes

New World crop that transformed European cuisines after being introduced through the Columbian Exchange.

Sugar cane

Old World crop that expanded with plantation agriculture and the Atlantic slave system.

Horses

Animal introduced to the Americas by Europeans; transformed many Native societies’ mobility and hunting.

Transatlantic slave trade

Systematic trading and transport of enslaved Africans across the Atlantic, beginning in the 16th century.

Middle Passage

The brutal sea journey endured by enslaved Africans from Africa to the Americas.

Enslaved Africans

Africans forcibly brought to the Americas to work in plantations and mines, forming a key labor force in colonial economies.