Psych Exam 2

Sensation

Is the stimulation of sensory receptors (responding to a stimulus)

The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

Sensory Receptors

Sensory nerve endings that respond to stimuli

Position receptors in ear, light receptors in eyes, sound receptors in ear, chemical receptors in nose and tongue, touch, pressure, pain, and temp receptors in the skin

Perception

Is the organism’s interpretation of that stimulation

The process by which our brain organizes and interprets sensory information, enabling us to recognize objects and events as meaningful

Bottom-up Processing

Sensory receptors start stimulation ending in interpretation (cortex)

Information processing that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information

Top-down Processing

Experiences (memories) construct perception

Information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

Absolute Threshold

Minimum amount of energy that a person can detect

The minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of them time

Difference Threshold

Just noticeable different (jnd)

The degree of difference that must exist between 2 stimuli before the difference is detected

Priming

The activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations in memory

Sensory Adaptation

When a stimulus is continuously available, we typically experience something like “receptor fatigue”

In order to respond to this familiarized stimulus in the future, you need to…

1. Increase its energy

2. Wait awhile so that your receptors can recover

   OR

3. Orient your receptors to something NOVEL

Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation

Context

Also called “priming”

Faster to perceive the word “dog” when you first hear the word" “bark”

Motivation

High desirability can make a goal seem closer (or farther away) than it really is

Emotion

Positive emotions can bias what we perceive

Pitch (frequency)

A tone’s experienced highness or lowness, depends on frequency

Higher frequency:

1. Shorter wavelength

2. Bluish colors

3. High pitched sounds

Lower frequency:

1. Longer wavelength

2. Reddish colors

3. Low-pitched sounds

Amplitude (intensity)

Greater amplitude:

1. Bright colors

2. Loud sounds

Smaller amplitude:

1. Dull colors

2. Soft sounds

External (outer) ear

Sound waves transmitted down ear canal

Middle ear

The chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing hammer (malleus), anvil (incus), and stirrup (stapes) — the concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval window

Middle ear vibrates and moves small bony structures to create fluid movement to thr cochlea

Inner ear (cochlea)

The innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs

Cochlea - sound waves travel through cochlear fluid and trigger nerve impulses

Converts fluid vibrations to electrical signals to the auditory nerve

Sensorineural hearing loss

Damage the neural conduction of sound (cochlea and auditory nerve)

Most common form of hearing loss, caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or the auditory nerve (nerve deafness)

Remediation = cochlear implant

Conductive hearing loss

Damage to the “mechanical” aspects of the ear (outer and middle ear)

Less common form of hearing loss, caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea

Remediation = hearing aid

Cochlear implant

A device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea

Sensorineural hearing loss

Wavelength

The distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next

Determined by frequency

Intensity

Amount of energy in a light wave or sound wave, which influences what we perceive as brightness or loudness

Determined by the wave’s amplitude (height)

Retina

Objects refracts light waves through lens onto retina

Light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information

Rods

Retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray

Sensitive to movement

Necessary for peripheral and night vision, when cones don’t respond

Many:1 correspondence to bipolar cells

Non fovea

Cones

Retinal receptors that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit condition

Detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations

Fine visual detail (visual acuity)

Color vision

1:1 correspondence to bipolar cells

Fovea

Optic nerve

Nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

Light excited photoreceptors then transmits nerve signals through optic nerve to the brain

Fovea

The central focal point in the retina, around which the eye’s cones cluster

Contains the highest concentration of photoreceptors (cones)

Sharp central vision

Trichromatic (three-color) theory

The theory that the retina contains 3 different types of color receptors

3 primary CONE types

1. Blue

2. Green

3. Red

Mix to form all possible shades

Opponent-process theory

The theory that opposing retinal processes enable color vision

1. Red-green

2. Yellow-blue

3. Black-white

These pairs are antagonistic: if 1 excited, other is inhibited (produce what is called a negative afterimage)

Looking at 1 color for a long period causes those receptor cells to become fatigued

Feature detectors

Nerve cells in the brain’s visual cortex that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement

Binocular cues for depth

A depth cue, such as retinal disparity, that depends on the use of two eyes

Retinal disparity

Each eye casts a slightly different retinal image

Gives rise to our perception of 3D

Greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object

A binocular cue for perceiving depth

By comparing retinal images from the 2 eyes, the brain computes distance

Monocular cues for depth

A depth cue, such as interposition or linear perspective, available to either eye alone

Interposition - objects that are partially blocked by other objects are seen to be further away

Linear perspective - taller objects are seen as closer compared to short objects

Texture grades - low amounts of detail are seen as further away

Visual cliff

Lab device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

Fusiform gyrus and face perception

Fusiform gyrus:

In both occipital and temporal lobes

Key structure for functionally-specialized computations of high-level vision such as face perception, object recognition, and reading

Maybe be related to the disorder prosopagnosia or face blindness

Eye contact may “prime” this area for processing

Zygote

The fertilized egg

It enters a 2 week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo

Before implantation

Embryo

The developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month

Implantation - 9 weeks

Fetus

The developing human organisms from 9 weeks after conception to birth

9 weeks - 40 weeks

Trimesters

1st trimester: 0-12 weeks, fundamental systems are formed

2nd trimester: 12-24 weeks, structures become more define

3rd trimester: 24-40 weeks, growth in mass

Teratogens

Agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

Legal drugs: thalidomide, alcohol, nicotine

Illegal drugs: cocaine, heroine

Excessive maternal stress

Fetal alcohol syndrome

Physical and cognitive abnormalities in children causes by a pregnant woman’s heavy drinking

In severe cases, signs include a small, out-of-proportion head and abnormal facial features

Prematurity

Less than 37 weeks

High risk of nervous system disorders

High risk of sensory/cognitive dysfunction

Habituation

Decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation

As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner

Attention

Selective attention: focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

Casual attention:

Imitation

The ability to mirror, repeat, and practice the actions of others

Preferences

Choosing between alternatives

Growth trends

2 general patterns

1. Cephalocaudal (heal —> tail)

2. Proximodistal (center —> periphery)

Once hands are no longer needed for locomotion, they rapidly develop eye-hand coordination

Crawling to walking

Infant directed speech

Speech register characterized by simpler sentences, a slower rate and more variable rhythm (used in poetry)

How you would speak to a baby

Schema

A concept or framework that organized and interprets information

Patterns of thinking behavior that people use to interpret the world

Basic level: help us assess our approach to stimuli

Complex: infer personality characteristic or people around us and suggest how we should act

Assimilation

Interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

Attempting to interpret new information within the framework of existing knowledge

Sensorimotor

Birth - 24 months

Infants know the world mostly in terms on their sensory impressions and motor activities

Basic concept of cause and effect

Memory for contingencies

Low mental imagery or mental representations (some object permanence)

Object permanence

The awareness that things continue to exist when not perceived

Preoperational

24 months to 6 years

A child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend then mental operations of concrete logic

Can form mental images and think symbolically (language)

Egocentric - cannot understands another’s point of view, lacking theory of mind

Weak conversation skills

Conservation

Properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

Concrete operational reasoning

Egocentrism

Child’s difficulty taking another’s point of view

Pre-operational stage

Concrete operational

7 - 11 years old

Stage of cognitive development at which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

Learns to conserve properties and relational properties

Formal operational

12 - 22 years old

People begin to think logically about abstract concepts

Hypothetical-deductive reasoning: formulating and testing hypotheses; building theories about how things work

Zone of proximal development

Learner can do something when guided

Scaffolding

Offers children temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking

Guided learning

Theory of mind

People’s ideas about their own and others’ mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict

Ability to infer and understand another’s mental state and use this info to explain and predict human behavior

Executive function

Working memory, inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility

Trouble with executive function can make it hard to focus, follow directions, and handle emotions

Secure Attachment

Caretaker acts as infant’s base of exploration; trust

Infants show separation anxiety

Maternal sensitivity

Insecure Attachment

Caretaker is not reliable and/or is insensitive to infant’s signals

Resistant or avoidant behaviors

Maternal sensitivity

Quality with which mothers respond to their infant’s cues in a timely and appropriate manner

Basic trust

Erik Erikson

A sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy

Formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers

Resilience

The personal strength that helps people cope with stress and recover from adversity and even trauma

Hypothetical deductive reasoning

Formulating and testing hypotheses

Building theories about how things work

Synaptic pruning

Brain eliminates extra synapses in order to increase the efficiency of neuronal transmissions

Frontal lobe development

Adolescence

Transition period from childhood to adulthood

Extending from puberty to independence

Puberty

Biological capacity for reproductions

Period of sexual maturation

Imaginary audience

Self-conscious feelings

Adolescents

Egocentrism

Difficulty take another’s point of view

Identity

Our sense of self

Erikson

The adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles

Social identity

Interpret your own identity through a lens of others

“We” aspect of self-concept

The part of our answer to “Who am I?” that comes from our group memberships

Emerging adulthood

18 - 25 years old

In many Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults

Not fully independent and productive

Menopause

The time of natural cessation of menstruation

Biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines

Neurocognitive disorders (NCDs)

Acquired (not lifelong) disorders marked by cognitive deficits

Often related to Alzheimer’s disease, brain injury or disease, or substance abuse

Also called dementia in older adults

Sensory loss - predicts depression and accelerated mental decline

Alzheimer’s disease

Neurocognitive disorder marked by neural plaques and tangles (neural deterioration)

75 - 80 years old onset

Entailing a progressive decline in memory and other cognitive abilities

Memory impairment

No known cure

Social clock

Culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement

Memory

The persistence of learning over time through encoding, storage, and retrieval of previous information

Encoding

Process of getting information into the memory system

Sensory memory

The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

Temporary holding of information while short term memory is active

Initial encoding of information

Low capacity, rapid decay, may decline with age

Short-term memory

Briefly activated memory of few items that is later stored or forgotten

Active processing of information

To process information for later retrieval; to “work” on information in the moment; focused attention

Limited memory span (7 items), but depends on organization of information (chunking)

Rehearsal Is a KEY operation for working memory

Negatively impacted by task switching, positively correlated with intelligence measures, decreases with age

Long-term memory

The relatively permanent and limitless archive of the memory system

Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences

Keeps information available over time (names, faces, facts, experiences)

Unlimited, not necessarily reliable

Working memory

Newer understanding of short-term memory

Conscious, active processing of both incoming sensory information, and information retrieved from long-term memory

Allows person to temporarily hold a limited amount of information at the ready for immediate mental use

Effortful memory

Explicit memories

Encoding the requires attention and conscious effort

Names, places, facts, figures

Remembered via active, effortful processing (repetition, mnemonics)

Automatic processing

Implicit memories

Unconscious encoding of incidental information such as space, time, and frequency, and of familiar or well-learned information, such as sounds, smells, and word meanings

Unconscious routines; associated events

Remembered with almost no effort; certain patterns become automatic

Semantic long term memory

Explicit memory of facts and general knowledge

Meaning of events, objects, words

Episodic long term memory

Explicit memory of personally experienced events

Autobiographical; personal; specific places; people, times

Spacing effect

Tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

Memorizing material in bits

Distributed over time is most effective

Distributed practice produces better long term memory

Serial position effect

Tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first (primacy effect) items in a list

Initial information and and most recent information (in time) better recalled and recognized than information in-between

Retention: recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier as on a fill in the blank test

Person is able to retrieve some certain “bit” of information

Retention: recognition

A measure of memory in which the person identifies previously learned, as on a multiple choice test

Person is able to identify some ”bit” of information from others as having been experiences before

Retention: relearning

A measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again

Person needs less time to relearn something

The more rehearsal at the time learning, the less time required to demonstrate relearning

State dependent retrieval

State (physical; emotional) you are in while learning

Should be the same during remembering

Internal

Context dependent retrieval

Cues from the surrounding environment can accompany a memory and should be present during retrieval

External

Proactive interference

The forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information

Prior learning interferes with recall of new information

Retroactive interference

The backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall on old information

New learning interferes with recall of older memories

Sleep helps

Decay

Some information fades with time (and disuse)

Initial details forgotten quickly and then memory stabilizes

Accommodation

Adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information