Must Know Dates: Era 2 - APWH Jennings

1453

1453

Ottomans capture Constantinople
Constantinople, the former capital of the Byzantine Empire, fell to one of the many sieges by Ottoman forces. The event would, to some, mark the true end of the Roman Empire, with the Byzantine Empire being fully occupied and destroyed with the fall of the capital. (Note: The Byzantine Empire is another name for the Eastern Roman Empire, which was created after the collapse of the Roman Empire. The Byzantines outlasted the Western Roman Empire.)

1450s

Printing Press in Europe (Gutenberg)

Johann Gutenberg's movable-type printing press allowed for the mass production for textual documents throughout Europe. Information and new ideas spread across the continent much faster, and at a much more efficient rate. (e.g. the mass production of Martin Luther's "95 Theses" during the Protestant Reformation)

c 1480

Height of Aztec Empire
The Aztec Empire, in its prime, was a powerful empire with a strong government, an efficient tribute system, and advanced agriculture (chinampas), engineering, and art. Their capital, Tenochtitlan, was a massive population center, with an estimated population of about two hundred thousand.

1488

Dias rounds Cape of Good Hope
Bartolomeu Dias's navigation and rounding of the Cape of Good Hope, located at the very south of Africa, was important in that the trip established a new trade route with Asia, one that wasn't dominated by the Ottomans, other European states, and Italian city-states (as the Mediterranean route was). The voyage would also be an inciting event for the future creation of Portuguese trading post empires, and European dominance in Asia.

1492

Columbus / Reconquista of Spain
Christopher Columbus's voyage, and the subsequent discovery of the New World by major European powers would result in the colonization, subjugation, and genocide of native lands and people of the Americas. The years of European rule in American colonies would permanently alter the ethnic, social, and political standards in the regions. The Reconquista would result in the entire Iberian peninsula being conquered by the Kingdom of Spain, undoubtedly establishing Spain as a major Catholic European power, and cementing the borders of what was seen as mainland Spain.

1502

1st African Slaves to Americas
The first African slaves would be brought to the island of Hispaniola (modern day Haiti and Dominica) by the Spanish. This, by some, is seen as the start of the transatlantic slave trade, which would greatly normalize the use of chattel slavery by Europeans in their American colonies. The institution of slavery in the Americas would permanently alter social structures in the Americas (e.g. slaves, Zambos, Mulattoes, African-Americas, African diaspora across the Americas in general)

1517

Martin Luther / Protestant Reformation
An event set in motion by Martin Luther, a German Christian, teacher, and monk, with his publication of Disputation on the Power of Indulgences, or 95 Theses. The 95 Theses, a small, few paged pamphlet would denounce the corruption of the Catholic Church (e.g. the Church's selling of Indulgences, in which one could buy their way out of punishment for sins). While Luther's initial goal was to reform the Church, the Catholic Church's refusal to negotiate with the theses and their labeling of Luther as a heretic would cause a split, which created Protestantism, now the second largest denomination of Christianity.

1519-1521

Cortez conquered the Aztecs
This period marked Hernan Cortez's conquest of the Aztec Empire, the territories of which would be incorporated into the Viceroyalty of New Spain.

1521-1523

Magellan circumnavigates the Earth
Magellan's expedition became the first to sail all the way around the Earth. This new voyage opened up new global trade routes and expanded our understanding of the world's geography, making it a pivotal moment in world history.

1529

1st unsuccessful Ottoman siege of Vienna (Suleiman the Magnificent)
The failure by the Ottomans to invade and occupy Vienna halted Turkish expansion into Europe. The now well established Ottoman Empire, controlled the Anatolian peninsula, parts of Arabia and the Maghreb (Northern Africa), and swathes of territory in the Balkans, a region in southern Europe. However, Vienna, the capital of Austria (an important member of the Holy Roman Empire!), was defended from and managed to repel Ottoman military sieges, showing the resilience of stronger European states to foreign invasion, and stopping the Ottomans from spreading further into Europe.

1533

Pizarro topples the Inca
Similarly to the Aztecs, Pizarro, using advanced gunpowder weapons, would conquer the Incan Empire. The native population would crash due to massacres, enslavement, and disease brought by the Spanish. The territory would be integrated into the Spanish colonies of the Viceroyalty of Peru and the Viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata, which would be exploited for their natural resources such as gold, silver, and crops.

1545

Discovery of silver at Potosí

The discovery of silver at Potosi further cemented the mass commercialization of South America by the Spanish, and expanded the global trade that existed, encompassing all continents. Located in Bolivia, Potosi would be exploited heavily by the Spanish for its large deposits of silver. Both native slaves (look up "Encomienda system") and indentured servants would be used as laborers to work the mines.

1571

Battle of Lepanto (Ottoman naval defeat)
A naval battle between the Ottoman Empire and the Holy League (Catholic coalition lead by Pope Pius V) in the Gulf of Patras, in Southern Greece. The Ottomans fleet would be defeated, stopping possible future Ottoman invasions of the Apennine peninsula (Italy). Further conflict in the already terrible Catholic-Ottoman relations.

1571

1st Manila Galleon (global trade of silver)

The first Spanish fleet that would connect the sea trade between the Philippines and the western coast of Mexico, across the Pacific Ocean, creating a cyclical, global trade of silver, highly influenced by the Spanish Empire. Note the economic and political (Spanish power) importance of such a system.

1588

Spanish Armada (Spain's failed invasion of England)
The Spanish Armada was Spain's failed invasion of England. Strained due to religious differences between the Catholic Spain and the Protestant England, and Spain's believed economic competition with England, relations between the two states would degrade to war. Spain's failure in the invasion would strengthen Elizabeth I's reign in England and secure England as a Protestant state, along with maintaining England as an influential power (which would go on to be one of the most powerful empires in the world; likely wouldn't have happened if England capitulated during the invasion).

1600

Battle of Sekigahara (beginning of Tokugawa Shogunate)

The Battle of Sekigahara was the final battle between the Eastern Army, led by Tokugawa Ieyasu, and the Western Army, Ishida Mitsunari. Ieyasu would defeat the Western Army, unifying Japan for the first time in history, forming the Tokugawa Shogunate. The Tokugawa Shogunate would begin long-lasting isolationist policies that would last until 1853, known as the Sakoku, in which the Japanese minimized trade with foreign nations, and banned foreigners from entering the country.

1607

Foundation of Jamestown
Jamestown was the first English colony in the New World (excluding Roanoke, which mysteriously disappeared), and would set the groundwork for English/British expansion, specifically into North America (obviously, British involvement in North America would be important for the formation of colonies that would become influential nations such as the United States, Canada, etc.)

1618-1648

Thirty Years' War
A religious and political conflict that divided and destroyed much of Europe; fought between Catholic states and states of smaller Christian denominations (Protestants, Calvinist, Lutherans). Important Catholic states included the Habsburg Monarchy (a vast European empire, centered in Austria), Spain, France, Bavaria (a member of the Holy Roman Empire), and other smaller, southern HRE principalities. Important Protestant powers included Sweden, Denmark, the United Provinces (Netherlands), Brandenburg, and Saxony, the last two of which also being important members of the HRE (the HRE was left fragmented by this war). The Treaty of Westphalia would end the destructive war, resulting in altered levels of sovereignty, increased European religious tolerance (for CHRISTIAN denominations), and decentralization within the Habsburg and Holy Roman Empires.

1644-1911

Qing Dynasty
The final Chinese dynasty. Differed greatly from other Chinese dynasties in that the Emperors and the ruling class were ethnically Manchu, a minority from Manchuria, and NOT Han, which comprised of the vast majority of the Chinese population. During Qing rule, the population of China grew to nearly 450 million. The Qing Dynasty, despite initial success, would collapse under foreign influence (Opium Wars, First Sino-Japanese War) and internal instability (Taiping Rebellion, peasant revolts). In 1911, the Qing Dynasty would eventually collapse into multiple warring cliques, known as the Warlord Era.

1653

Cape Town colony founded (Dutch)
The Dutch East India Company founded the Cape Town colony at the southern tip of Africa, establishing a key stopover for ships traveling to and from Asia. Led by Jan van Riebeeck, the colony began as a refreshment station for European traders. Over time, Dutch settlers (Boers) expanded inland, leading to conflicts with local Khoikhoi and San peoples. The establishment of Cape Town marked the beginning of European colonial presence in southern Africa, laying the groundwork for Dutch, and later British, control in the region.

1683

2nd unsuccessful Ottoman siege of Vienna (Mehmet IV)
In 1683, the Ottoman Empire, under Sultan Mehmed IV, launched its second siege of Vienna, aiming to expand its influence into Central Europe. The Ottomans surrounded the city, which was a key defensive point against further expansion into Europe. However, the siege was unsuccessful due to a decisive relief force led by the Polish king, Jan III Sobieski, who arrived with a coalition army of Austrian, German, and Polish troops. The combined forces broke the Ottoman siege, forcing the Ottomans to retreat. This failure marked the beginning of the decline of Ottoman power in Europe, as it was the last major attempt to capture Vienna, and it shifted the balance of power in favor of European states.

1689

Glorious Revolution / English Bill of Rights
The Glorious Revolution of 1688 (ended in 1689) saw the overthrow of King James II of England, who was replaced by his daughter Mary II and her husband, William of Orange. Fearing James's Catholic sympathies and his attempts to increase royal power, Protestant nobles invited William to invade. The revolution was largely bloodless, hence the term "Glorious." In 1689, the English Bill of Rights was passed, limiting the powers of the monarchy and affirming parliamentary supremacy. It guaranteed certain rights for citizens, such as freedom from cruel and unusual punishment and the right to petition the government. The revolution and the Bill of Rights marked a significant step toward the development of a constitutional monarchy in England, laying the foundation for modern democracy.