Japan's Modernization in the early 20th century

Meiji Constitution (1889) (Political:Constitutional monarchy)

Political structure

• Prime Minister

• Cabinet

• Diet 議會: Upper House 上議院(nobility were appointed as members); Lower House 下議院 (elected by taxpayers who paid 15 yen or above)

• Emperor exercised legislative power w/ consent of Diet

Emperor-centered government

• Emperor as the ‘sacred, inviolable’ supreme leader

• Prime Minister and Cabinet were responsible to Emperor

• could appoint/dismiss Prime Minister and Cabinet

• could dissolve Lower House of Diet

Rule of man (Genro)

e.g. Yamagata Aritomo 山縣有朋 (‘Prime Minister Maker’) nominated several government officials to be Prime Ministers

• Genro were not under the control of Meiji Constitution

• they could control Privy Council 樞密院 and Cabinet

Rule of man (Militarists)

• not controlled by Prime Minister, Diet, and Cabinet

• had direct access to Emperor

• Military Ministers to be Active-Duty Officers Law 軍部大臣現役武官制 (1900-1913); Militarists could control Cabinet

Military Ministers to be Active-Duty Officers Law (1900-1913)

only SERVING 現任 Army and Navy generals could be Ministers of Army and Navy; otherwise Cabinet could not be formed w/o their participation

Limited power of Diet

• Upper House could veto Lower House's bill

• Cabinet could veto Diet's bill

Rise of party politics

because of Rice Riot 米騷動 (1918),

• Hara Kei 原敬 was appointed as 1st commoner Prime Minister

• all posts in his Cabinet were filled by party members, except Ministers of Army and Navy, and Minister of Foreign Affairs

e.g. Seiyukai 政友會, Minseito 民政黨

General Election Law (1925)

all men aged 25 or above could vote

Extension of franchise

1. (1902) only 2% of population enjoyed voting rights

2. (1925) General Election Law

3. (1928) percentage of population eligible to vote increased (20%)

Rapid industrialization

(1903) more than 8000 factories in Japan, of which 3700 used machinery in their production

Economy monopolized by zaibatsu

e.g. Mitsui 三井, Mitsubishi 三菱, Sumitomo 住友, Yasuda 安田

• 5 banks owned by Mitsui, Mitsubishi, Sumitomo, Yasuda, and Daiichi 第一 held 34.5% of Japan's deposits (1929)

Small and medium-sized enterprises could hardly survive on the market

Unstable foreign trade

Japan could no longer dominate Asian markets;

total exports fell by 50% (1929-1931) and 3 million people unemployed

• (1927) Showa Financial Crisis: bankruptcy of banks

• (1929) Great Depression: economic protectionism

• Grassroots families led a poor life (Economic/Social)

• (1918) Rice Riot (famine, people fought together because of the high rice price)

• (1923) Great Kanto Earthquake

• (1927) Showa Financial Crisis

• (1929) Great Depression

Co-existence of Japanese and Western cultures

wear suits, eat beef, Western architectural styles; Japanese cuisines and architectural styles

Limited social freedom

• Meiji Constitution granted freedom of speech, assembly, publication, and religion (provided that ppl were ‘NOT PREJUDICAL TO PEACE AND ORDER’)

• (1925) Peace Preservation Law was abused by government to suppress dissenting voices

Great Kanto Earthquake (1925)

100000 casualties, USD 30 billion loss, more than 100000 houses were destroyed

Showa Financial Crisis (1927)

closure of approximately 30 banks

Great Depression (1929)

Total exports (1929-1931) fell by 50% (due to economic protectionism); 3 million ppl unemployed

Peace Preservation Law (1925)

originally used to suppress Communists (as they were atheists)

Development of extreme nationalism

• e.g. Black Dragon Society, Sakura Society, Aikokusha, Brotherhood of Blood League

• Aikokusha tried to assassinate Prime Minister Osachi Hamaguchi

• Brotherhood of Blood League assassinated Prime Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi

• some extremists (incited by Kita Ikki) assassinated government officials like ex-Prime Minister Saito Makoto

Highest educational standard in Asia

• (1903) Compulsory Education was extended from 4 years to 6 years, and covered children of both sexes

→National enrollment rate reached 97% and once reached 99% (1920)