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Levels of analysis
The concept that a topic can be studied in various ways, each contributing its own dimension to understanding, similar to examining a car's performance, mechanisms, and engine to gain comprehensive knowledge.
Neuron doctrine
The idea introduced by Ramon y Cajal that individual cells (neurons) transmit signals in the nervous system and are not continuous with other cells, forming the basis for understanding neural communication and brain function.
Resting potential
The stable electrical charge across a neuron's membrane when it is not transmitting signals, with the inside being negatively charged compared to the outside, crucial for maintaining neuron function and signal transmission.
Action potential
The brief electrical impulse that travels down the axon of a neuron when stimulated, involving a temporary reversal of charge inside the neuron, essential for transmitting information throughout the nervous system.
Nerve Firing
The rate at which action potentials travel down the axon per second, indicating the intensity of the stimulus.
Feature Detectors
Neurons that respond to specific qualities of stimuli, such as orientation, movement, or length.
Hierarchical Processing
The progression from lower to higher areas of the brain where signals from neurons combine and interact to respond to increasingly complex stimuli.
Neural Representation
The concept of how neurons work together to represent various characteristics of the environment, involving a number of neurons rather than one specialized neuron per object.
Sensory Coding
The problem of how neurons represent characteristics of the environment, with specificity coding suggesting one neuron per object, while population coding involves a large number of neurons representing an object.
Sparse Coding
A type of coding where a particular object is represented by the firing of only a small group of neurons, with the majority of neurons remaining silent.
Localization of Function
The principle that specific functions are served by specific areas of the brain, such as the cerebral cortex for many cognitive functions and subcortical areas for other functions.
Broca's Area
An area in the frontal lobe associated with language production, where damage can lead to Broca's aphasia characterized by slow, labored speech.
Wernicke's Area
An area in the temporal lobe associated with language comprehension, where damage can lead to Wernicke's aphasia characterized by fluent but incoherent speech.
Prosopagnosia
An inability to recognize faces due to damage in the temporal lobe, leading to difficulties in identifying familiar faces, even one's own in the mirror.
Double Dissociation
A method to demonstrate localization of function by showing that damage to one brain area impairs one function while leaving another intact, and vice versa, indicating separate mechanisms for different functions.
Imaging Revolution
Refers to technological advances that bring about a significant shift in the way science is conducted, such as the introduction of brain-scanning techniques like PET and fMRI.
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)
A brain imaging technique that detects neural activity by measuring changes in blood oxygen levels, providing insights into brain function and localization of activity.
Voxels
Small, cube-shaped areas in the brain, about 2-3 mm on a side, used as units of analysis in fMRI scans to represent brain activity.
Distributed Representation
The concept that cognitive processes, such as perception and memory, activate multiple widely separated brain areas, reflecting the multidimensional nature of experiences.
Neural Networks
Interconnected areas of the brain that communicate with each other, forming the brain's information highway and playing a crucial role in cognition and brain function.
Structural Connectivity
The brain's "wiring diagram" formed by nerve axons connecting different brain areas, traditionally determined through neuroanatomical techniques like staining brain tissue to highlight axons.
Track-Weighted Imaging (TWI)
A technique based on detecting how water diffuses along nerve fibers to map the brain's connections more extensively than traditional methods.
Connectome
The structural description of the network of elements and connections in the human brain, often referred to as the "wiring diagram" of neurons.
Functional Connectivity
The extent to which neural activity in two brain areas is correlated, indicating functional connections, determined through methods like resting-state fMRI.
Resting-State Functional Connectivity
Measured by correlating neural responses between seed and test locations using resting-state fMRI, showing how different brain areas are functionally connected.
Dynamics of Cognition
Describes the constantly changing flow of activity within and across functional networks in the brain, influenced by different cognitive tasks and conditions.
Default Mode Network (DMN)
A network of brain structures that activate when a person is not engaged in specific tasks, associated with mind wandering and various cognitive processes.
Microelectrodes
Tools used to record signals from neurons, as demonstrated by Edgar Adrian in the first recordings from single neurons.
Principle of neural representation
Everything a person experiences is based on representations in the nervous system, not direct contact with stimuli.
Feature detectors
Neurons that respond to complex stimuli, explaining neural representation through specificity coding, population coding, and sparse coding.
Localization of function
The idea that different brain areas are specialized for specific functions, supported by various studies including brain imaging experiments.
Brain imaging
Techniques like functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) measure brain activation during cognitive tasks, providing insights into brain functioning.
Distributed processing
Specific functions are processed by multiple brain areas due to the multidimensional nature of experiences, such as seeing a face or understanding language.
Neural networks
Groups of neurons or structures that are structurally and functionally connected, contributing to brain function.
Structural connectivity
Defines the neural highway system of the brain, measured using techniques like track-weighted imaging.
Functional connectivity
Occurs when different brain areas show temporally correlated responses, measured through resting-state fMRI among other methods.
Default mode network (DMN)
A network that shows decreased activity during tasks and increased activity at rest, playing roles in various cognitive processes.
Technology and cognition
Progress in understanding cognition relies on technological advances, aiding in answering fundamental questions about brain function.
Selective Attention
The ability to focus on specific stimuli or locations while ignoring others.
Distraction
When one stimulus interferes with the processing of another stimulus.
Divided Attention
Paying attention to more than one thing at a time.
Attentional Capture
Rapid shifting of attention usually caused by a stimulus like a loud noise, bright light, or sudden movement.
Visual Scanning
Movements of the eyes from one location or object to another.
Sensory Memory
Holds incoming information briefly before transferring it to the filter.
Filter
Identifies the attended message based on physical characteristics and lets only this message pass through to the detector.
Detector
Processes the attended message to determine higher-level characteristics like meaning.
Short-term Memory
Holds information for 10-15 seconds and transfers it to long-term memory.
Early Selection Model
Filter eliminates unattended information at the beginning of information processing.
Attenuator
Analyzes incoming messages based on physical characteristics, language, and meaning in Treisman's model.
Dictionary Unit
Contains words stored in memory with thresholds for activation based on importance in Treisman's model.
Late Selection Model
Messages can be selected at a later stage of processing primarily based on their meaning.
Processing Capacity
The amount of information individuals can handle, setting a limit on their ability to process incoming information.
Perceptual Load
The difficulty level of a task, with easy tasks having low perceptual loads and using minimal processing capacity, while difficult tasks have high perceptual loads and use more processing capacity.
Load Theory of Attention
Lavie's theory explaining distraction based on processing capacity and perceptual load, where low-load tasks leave resources to process task-irrelevant stimuli, while high-load tasks use all resources for the primary task.
Stroop Effect
A phenomenon where reading words interferes with naming the ink color of the words, illustrating the power of task-irrelevant stimuli and automaticity in reading.
Scanning
Shifting attention by moving the eyes, involving fixations on specific points and saccadic eye movements, influenced by bottom-up (physical characteristics) and top-down (cognitive factors) processes.
Top-down processing
Scanning influenced by individual preferences and knowledge, such as scene schemas and expectations.
Cognitive factors
Influence scanning based on knowledge of the environment and predictions, guiding attention towards relevant information.
Covert attention
Shifting attention without eye movements, studied to understand mental processes without interference from eye movements.
Precueing
Experiment by Posner et al. (1978) showing that presenting cues indicating where a test stimulus will appear enhances processing at that location.
Same-object advantage
Faster response when attention is directed to one place on an object, enhancing processing throughout the object.
Attention and perception
Attending to objects affects perception, making attended objects appear bigger, faster, and more vivid compared to non-attended objects.
Attention to Locations Increases Activity in Specific Areas of the Brain
When attention is directed to a specific location, it increases activity in the brain areas representing that location.
Attention Maps
Maps created by Datta and DeYoe showing how directing attention to a specific area of space activates a corresponding area of the brain.
Attentional Warping
Effect observed by Cukur where attention changes the representation of objects across the cortex, allocating more space to categories being searched for.
Divided Attention
The distribution of attention among two or more tasks, allowing individuals to focus on multiple things simultaneously.
Automatic Processing
Type of processing that occurs without intention and with only some of a person's cognitive resources, as demonstrated in Schneider and Shiffrin's experiment.
Automatic Processing
Unconscious, efficient mental processing of information that occurs without the need for attention.
Divided Attention
The ability to focus on and manage multiple tasks or stimuli simultaneously.
Distractions
External factors that divert attention away from the task at hand, potentially leading to decreased performance.
Experience Sampling
A research method involving random prompts to assess ongoing behaviors and experiences throughout the day.
Operant Conditioning
A learning process where behavior is strengthened by reinforcement or punishment.
Continuous Partial Attention
A state of constant alertness to multiple sources of information, leading to a divided focus and potential performance impairment.
Mind Wandering
The involuntary shifting of attention from the current task to unrelated thoughts or daydreams, often leading to decreased task performance.
Attention
A precious and limited resource, can be divided but challenging, affected by external distractions.
Inattentional Blindness
Unawareness of visible stimuli when attention is not directed towards them.
Inattentional Deafness
Impaired hearing when focusing on a difficult visual task.
Change Detection
Procedure where differences between two pictures are identified, demonstrating change blindness.
Change Blindness
Difficulty in detecting changes in scenes, even when obvious, due to lack of attention.
Perceptual System
The system responsible for processing and interpreting sensory information from the environment to make sense of the world around us.
Focused Attention
The ability of the perceptual system to concentrate on specific stimuli or tasks while filtering out irrelevant information.
Warning System
A mechanism within the perceptual system that responds to motion or intense stimuli, prompting a shift in attention towards potential threats or dangers.
Feature Integration Theory
A theory proposing that object processing involves a preattentive stage where features are analyzed independently, followed by a focused attention stage where features are combined to create a coherent perception of the object.
Illusory Conjunctions
Perceptual errors where features from different stimuli are incorrectly combined, demonstrating the role of attention in binding separate features into a unified object perception.
Conjunction Search
Scanning a display to focus attention at a specific location, requiring attention to a location for target identification.
Feature Search
Searching for targets based on specific features without requiring attention at a specific location.
Ventral Attention Network
Controls attention based on stimulus salience, part of the neural networks associated with attention.
Dorsal Attention Network
Controls attention based on top-down processes, part of the neural networks associated with attention.
Executive Attention Network
Controls attention involving dealing with conflicting responses, a complex network for executive functions.
Effective Connectivity
Refers to how easily activity can travel along a particular pathway in a network, influenced by synchronization between different brain areas.
Synchronization
Mechanism where signals from different brain areas become coordinated, enhancing communication and effective connectivity.
Feature Integration Theory
Explains how object features are combined to create perception, involving preattentive processing and focused attention.
Inattentional Blindness
Failure to perceive visible objects when attention is focused elsewhere, highlighting limitations in attention and perception.
Change Blindness
Inability to detect changes in a scene, showcasing how inattention can impact perception and awareness.
Perception
Experiences resulting from stimulation of the senses, creating our understanding of the environment.
Perceptual Rule
A guideline based on past experiences that aids in interpreting sensory information, like objects continuing behind overlapping ones.
Inverse Projection Problem
The challenge of determining the object in the environment that caused a specific image on the retina.
Hidden Objects
Objects that are partially obscured from view, requiring individuals to use their knowledge of the environment to infer their presence.
Viewpoint Variability
The issue of objects appearing differently when viewed from various angles, challenging the consistency of object recognition.
Viewpoint Invariance
Computer-vision systems require complex calculations to match points on an object in different views to achieve viewpoint invariance.
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