Biology Chapter 3,4,5 Macromolecules/Cell Structure and Function

Organic Compounds

Contain carbon along with hydrogen, oxygen, and/or nitrogen

Carbon skeleton

Chain of carbon atoms in an organic molecule

Functional groups

bond to carbon skeletons and are responsible for most of the chemical properties of a particular organic compound

What can small organic molecules combine into?

Larger macromolecules

Macromolecules

Polymers consisting of many small repeating molecules called monomers

Basic structures of all amino acids is a carbon backbone and…

an amino and carboxyl group

Monomers

Single subunits that make most macromolecules

Polymers

Monomers combine with each other via covalent bonds

Dehydration synthesis

When polymers are being formed, monomers release water molecules as byproducts

“to put together while losing water”

Maltose molecule

Dehydration synthesis of two glucose molecules and requires energy

Hydrolysis

Reaction that uses water to break bonds and energy is released in the process

Enzymes

Used to speed up a process that is sped up with something specific to break down specific types of macromolecules

Carbohydrates

sugars

Functions of carbohydrates

How do carbohydrates help cells

they can provide structural integrity to cells

What does the body do to carbs

Turns them into glucose to give energy to function

What do carbohydrates consist of?

C, H, and O

Monosaccharides

Simple sugars

How long are monosaccharides?

3-7 carbon atoms

Examples of monosaccharides

Glucose, fructose, galactose, and deoxyribose

What can monosaccharides be used for?

Can constitute the building blocks of more complex sugars

Disaccharides

Two monosaccharides

Examples of disaccharides

Sucrose, lactose, and maltose

How are disaccharides be broken down?

Using hydrolysis

Polysaccharides

Tens or hundreds of monosaccharides joined together

Polymers of glucose

Starch, glycogen dextran, and cellulose

Lipids

Primary components of cell membranes and consist of C, H, and O

Lipid polarity

They are nonpolar and insoluble in water

Saturated fat

No double bonds in fatty acids

Unsaturated fat

One or more double bonds in the fatty acids

Saturated fat

Unsaturated fat

Examples of saturated fat

Fatty meat, butter, cheese, milk, cream, coconut oil, chocolate

Examples of unsaturated fat

Fatty fish, avocado, plant oils, peanut butter, nuts, seeds

Phospholipids

Lipid bilayer

Lipid bilayer

Cell membrane made out of complex lipids

Complex lipids

Contain C, H, and O + P, and/or S

Phospholipids polarity

polar and non polar regions

Polar heads

Hydrophilic

Hydrophilic

Water loving

Nonpolar tails

Hydrophobic

Steroids

Signaling molecule, and an important component of cell membrane as it alters fluidity

How are steroids made?

Four carbon rings with an -OH group attached to oone ring

Most common steroid in the body

Cholesterol

Cholesterol

waxy substance in blood, too much means an increased risk of heart disease as it leads to fatty deposits in the blood vessels

Protein

Made of C, H, O, N, and sometimes S: N-C-C-N-C-C-N…

Why are proteins important?

Essential in cell structure and function

Protein examples

Enzyme speeding up chemical reactions. transporter proteins move chemicals across membranes, flagella aid in movement, some bacterial toxins and cell structures

What are proteins made of?

subunits called amino acids

Amino acids

Contain an alpha-carbon that has an attached carboxyl, amino and side group (R)

Amino acids structure

Peptide bonds

Type of covalent bond that forms between amino acids via dehydration synthesis reaction to form a chain → peptide → protein

Primary (1 degree) structure

Polypeptide chain

Secondary (2 degrees) structure

Occurs when the amino acid chain folds and coils in a helix or pleated sheet

Tertiary structure

When the helix or sheet folds irregularly, forming a disulfide bridges, hydrogen bonds, and ionic bonds between amino acids in the chain. Three dimensional structure.

Quaternary structure

Consists of two or more polypeptides and is the relationship between these several folded polypeptide chains to form a protein

Example of a primary 1 structure

Examples of secondary structures

tertiary structure example

Quaternary structure example

Nucleic acids

Nucleosides, and nucleotides

Nucleosides

Pentose sugar with a nitrogen-containing base (purine or pyrimidine)

Nucleotides

Five carbon pentose sugar, nitrogen-containing base, and a phosphate group

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

Contains a deoxyribose (pentose sugar), Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, Guanine

How to the nitrogen bases connect?

They use hydrogen bonds

What do the nitrogen containing bases do?

Forms genetic instructions of the organism

Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

Ribose (sugar), adenine bonds with uracil as it substitutes for all thymines

RNA structure

Single-stranded

RNA types that play specific roles in protein synthesis

Deoxyribose

Ribose

Purine

Adenine, and Guanine

Pyrimidine

Thymine, Cytosine, Uracil

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

Made of ribose, adenine, and three phosphate groups

What does ATP do?

Stores chemical energy released by some chemical phosphate reactions and is the main carrier in cells

When is ATP made?

Generated during cellular respiration

Cell theory

Cells are fundamental structural and functional units of all living organisms

Cell Function

nutrient uptake waste removal, energy use, and reproduction

Prokaryote

Pre-nucleus and there is no membrane bound nucleus or organelles

What falls under prokaryote?

Bacteria and Archaea

Eukaryote

True nucleus, and has a membrane bound nucleus organelles such as the ER, mitochondria, Golgi, etc

What falls under eukaryote?

Plants, animals, fungi, and protozoa

Glycocalyx

External to the cell wall and is viscous/gelatinous due to being made out of polysaccharides (sugar), and/or polypeptides

What is the purpose of the glycocalyx?

Capsule type of Glycocalyx

Neatly organized and firmly attached to prevent phagocytosis (ingestion) and helps in the formation of biofilms (microbial communities)

Flagella

Propels bacteria (locomotion) as it is filamentous appendage(s) and made out of flagellin

Chemotaxis

Movement of an organism (towards or away from) a chemical stimulus

What is unique about the kinds of flagellar proteins?

They can be used to distinguish between different serovars of bacteria

Serovar

Distinct variation within a species of bacteria or virus

Axial Filaments

Endoflagella

Where are axial filaments found?

In bacteria called spriochetes

Structure of axial filaments

Fimbriae

Bristle-like, short appendages that allow for attachment

Pili

Long hair-like appendages involved in motility (like crawling on a surface)

Conjugation (sex) pili

Involved in the transfer of DNA from one cells to another

Bacterial Cell Walls

Protects the cell membrane and prevents osmotic lysis

What do bacterial cell walls contain?

Peptidoglycan

Cell walls of bacteria can contribute to what?

Pathogenicity

Pathogenicity

Potential or ability of an organism to cause disease in a host

Gram-Positive Cell Walls