III Midterm

Research

• the creation of new knowledge and/or the use of existing knowledge in a new and creative way to generate new concepts, methodologies and understanding. This could include synthesis and analysis of previous research to the extent that it leads to new and creative outcomes

Research

• the scientific investigation of phenomena which includes collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of facts that link an individual’s speculation with reality

• the systematic study of a trend which involves the careful collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of quantitative data or facts that relate man’s thinking with reality

Basic Research

• also called “fundamental research” or “pure research”

• seeks to discover basic truths or principles

• intended to add to the body of scientific knowledge by exploring the unknown to extend the boundaries of knowledge as wells as to discover new facts and learn more accurately the characteristics of the known without any thought as to immediate practical utility

Applied Research

• this type of research involves seeking new applications of scientific knowledge to the solution of a problem, such as the development of a new system or procedure, new device or new method to solve the problem

Developmental Research

• this is decision-oriented research involving the application of the steps of the scientific method in response to an immediate need to improve existing practices

• Research allows you to pursue your interests, learn something new, hone your problem-solving skills, and to challenge yourself in new ways. • It is valuable life skills for life and class such as professionalism, time management, and learning how to use online research tools. • It communicates your ideas and how to analyze and critique the work of others. • It's a tool for building knowledge and facilitating learning. • It's a means to understand issues and increase public awareness. • It helps us succeed in business. • It allows us to disprove lies and support truths. • It is a means to find, gauge, and seize opportunities. • It promotes a love of and confidence in reading, writing, analyzing, and sharing valuable information. • It provides nourishment and exercise for the mind.

• Why do we do Research?

Research Ethics

• set of ethical guidelines that guide us on. how scientific research should be conducted and disseminated

Honesty

• principle of research ethics

• researchers must ensure this in all forms of scientific communication with colleagues, sponsors, or the general public

Objectivity

• principle of research ethics

• avoid bias in all aspects of research

Integrity

• principle of research ethics

• maintain consistency of thought and action

Carefulness

• principle of research ethics

• always avoid errors or negligence

Openness

• principle of research ethics

• share information about your research and be open to criticism and new ideas

Transparency

• principle of research ethics

• disclose all the necessary information needed to evaluate your research

Accountability

• principle of research ethics

• be responsible for all concerns related to your research

Intellectual Property

• principle of research ethics

• avoid plagiarism, give proper credit to all contribution in your research and honor all forms of intellectual property

Confidentiality

• principle of research ethics

• protect and safeguard all confidential information recorded in your research

Responsible Publication

• principle of research ethics

• publish for the sole reason to advance the knowledge in your field

Responsible Mentoring

• principle of research ethics

• help and mentor other researchers and promote their welfare

Respect for Colleagues

• principle of research ethics

• respect and treat all your colleagues fairly

Social Responsibility

• principle of research ethics

• aim to promote social good through your research

Non-Discrimination

• principle of research ethics

• avoid discrimination in all forms against colleagues

Competence

• principle of research ethics

• improve your own personal competence and also promote the competence of science as a whole

Legality

• principle of research ethics

• obey all relevant laws and policies

Animal Care

• principle of research ethics

• respect and care for animal species

Human Subject Protection

• principle of research ethics

• respect human dignity and take special precautions wherever needed

Research Problem

• a statement about an area of concern, a condition to be improved, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in scholarly literature

• typically posed in the form of a question

• does not state how to do something, offer a vague or broad proposition, or present a value question

1. Introduce the reader to the importance of the topic being studied

2. Places the problem into a particular context

3. Provides the framework for reporting the results

• Purpose of a problem statement

Research Approaches

• a procedure selected by the researcher to collect, analyze and interpret data

Quantitative data

• kind of research approach

• a numerical, which requires statistical analysis methods to interpret the data.

• statistical analysis methods include finding the mean, median, standard deviation, variance, etc.

Qualitative data

• kind of research approach

• narrative or visual, which requires thematic analysis to interpret the data.

• the thematic analysis uses words and sentences to code and gathers intro categories

Research Objectives

• describe what we expect to achieve by a project

• usually expressed in lay terms and are directed as much to the client as to the researcher

• may be linked with a hypothesis or used as a statement of purpose in a study that does not have hypothesis

• must be achievable; it must be framed keeping in mind the available time, infrastructure required for research and other resources

SMART Specific Measurable Achievable Realistic Time-bound

• Characteristics of a Research Problem (1) The problem should be specifically stated (2) It is easy to measure by using research instruments, apparatus, or equipment (3) The data are achievable using correct statistical tools to arrive at precise results (4) Real results are attained because they are gathered scientifically and not manipulated or maneuvered (5) Time frame is required in every activity because the shorter completion of the activity, the better

Specialization of the researcher

• Sources of Research Problem

• The specialization of the researcher is an impetus toward research

Current and Past Research

• Sources of Research Problem

• This is a rich source of research problems even for research replication by using the same instrument, apparatus or equipment

Recommendation from theses, dissertations and research journals

• Sources of Research Problem

• It recommends for future research be conducted as sources also of research problems

Original and creative ideas of the researcher based on the problems met in the locality and country

• Sources of Research Problem

• Through the original and creative ideas of the researchers of the problems which conducted a study on the utilization and commercialization

Interesting

• Criteria of a Good Research Problem

• a research problem must attract the attention of the researcher and the other people to conduct the research project even without an incentive or research grant at all

Innovative

• Criteria of a Good Research Problem

• through replicability in conducting research is allowed, it is advisable that a research problem is something novel, original and uniques to attract the attention of the people and contribute to the economic development of the country

Cost-Effective

• Criteria of a Good Research Problem

• a good research problem should be economical and effective in solving the needs and problems of society; it should also augment the socioeconomic and health conditions of the people and many others

Relevant to the needs and problems of the people

• Criteria of a Good Research Problem

• researchers must keep in mind that they conduct research, not for their personal aggrandizement but also to solve the need and problems of the people

Relevant to the government’s trust

• Criteria of a Good Research Problem

• a research problem must respond to the government’s trust

Measurable and Time-bound

• Criteria of a Good Research Problem

• a good research problem is measurable by using research instruments, apparatus or equipment as well as statistical tools to arrive at scientific and meaningful results

Historical Method

• type of research methods

• also know as the documentary method

• in looking into the truth of the past event, the researchers should avail themselves of the use of documents on recorded infromation and facts

Descriptive Method

• type of research methods

• otherwise known as normative survey

• concerned with the prevailing or existing status of an even or a problem under this method

• employs data gathering procedures like: questionaire, interview and observation

Experimental Method

• type of research methods

• the researcher focuses on what will be the outcome of the study from the point of view of the future with the manipulation of one independent variable under control and observes the effect on one or more dependent variables

Causal-Comparative Method

• type of research methods

• may also be called Ex Post Facto Research

• draws conclusions from an observation dervied from what had already taken place

Participatory Method

• type of research methods

• requires the researcher’s participation in undergoing the activities within the bounds of the problem sought for investigation

• the researcher interacts with the samples to personally observe, evaluate, criticize and interpret the findings as assessed

Case Method

• type of research methods

• also called the historic genetic method

• delves to the study of the past, the present and the future of the subject case

Statistical Method

• type of research methods

• a method where researchers make use of quantitative measurements

• the data are communicated in form of mathematical figures and quantities

• the researchers uses laws of statistics in the presentation of data

Correlation Method

• type of research methods

• utilized by researchers who intend to describe certain phenomena and ascertain the degree to which two or more variable are significantly related or correlated

Qualitative Research

• type of research who’s objective is to gain an understanding of the underlying reasons and motivations; provide insights into the setting of a problem; to uncover prevalent trends in thought and opinion

• Data Collection: unstructured or semi-structured techniques (interviews & group discussions)

• uses Non-statistical data analysis

• its outcomes are not conclusive; They are exploratory/investigative

Quantitative

• type of researcher who’s purpose is to quantify data and generalize results from a sample to the population of interest; measure the incidence of various views and opinion in a chosen sample

• Data Collection: Structures techniques like online questionnaires

• uses statistical data analysis in the form of tabulations with conclusive findings that are descriptive in nature

• it’s outcomes are used to recommend a final course of action

1. Study design and ethics approval

2. Data analysis

3. Authorship

4. Conflicts of interest

5. Redundant publication and plagiarism

• Issues of the Proposed Research

Title

• summarizes the main idea or ideas of your study

• a good ____ contains the fewest possible words that adequately describe the contents and/or purpose of your research paper

1. Image result for research approach or key questions

2. Focused on a single problem or issue.

3. Researchable using primary and/or secondary sources.

4. Feasible to answer within the timeframe and practical constraints.

5. Specific enough to answer thoroughly.

6. Complex enough to develop the answer over the space of a paper or thesis.

• What are key research questions?

1. Clearly defined, free of jargon

2. Sufficiently focused

3. Addressed within your limited time frame

• How to identify a meaningful research question

Introduction

• first part of Chapter !

• consists of background of the study, statement of the problem, significance of the study and scope & delimination fo the study

Background of the Study

• a brief statement of the origin of the problem

• an account describing the circumstances which suggest the research

Statement of the Problem

• the definition of the problem is the first main step in writing the research paper

• can be expressed in question or declarative form

Significance of the Study

• states the significance of the study and its result

• covers an expression of the study’s relevance to fill certain needs

Scope and Delimination of the Study

• identifies a reasonable area covered by the study

• a specific statement of the study must indicate the subjects, the number, and the treatment involved in the study

Conceptual Framework

• framework based on generally accepted methods, practices etc.

Theoretical Framework

• framework that deals with interrelated theories which must be presented in more detail as they are not totally tangible

Hypothesis

• tentative statements about the given research topic

Definition of Terms

• this pare includes the operational and conceptual definition fo significant terms used in the research paper

Quantitative Research Design

• uses structured techniques like questionnaires

• finds the evidence to support or contradicts the hypothesis

• data collection from larger samples

• data is quantified then informs statistical analysis

• data presented in graphs and charts

• data collection is very significant

• the quality of conclusion depends on the quality of data

Case Study

Qualitative Research Design:

• Studies a person, program, or event in a defined time frame.

• Sources of data collection are direct or participant observation, interviews, archival records or documents, physical artifacts, and audiovisual materials.

• Involve a detailed description of the setting or individuals, followed by analysis of the data for themes or issues.

• Examples are ____ _______ of drug-rehabilitated teenagers, transgender people, gay marriages, and success stories.

Ethnography

Qualitative Research Design:

• An entire cultural group in a natural setting over a prolonged period by collecting primarily observational data.

• Involve a detailed description of the setting or individuals, followed by analysis of the data for themes or issues.

• Aspects included in ___________ are the justification for the study, description of the group and method of study, the evidence to support the researcher’s claims, and the findings to the research questions.

Content Analysis

Qualitative Research Design:

• Detailed and systematically examined a particular body of materials to identify patterns, themes, or biases.

• Identifies specific characteristics of the content of human communication.

• Analyses the materials and puts them in a frequency table then conducts statistical analysis

Phenomenological Study

Qualitative Research Design:

• Search for “the central underlying meaning of the research participant’s experience.”

• Research participation is more pronounced in this kind of qualitative research.

• The researcher has obtained data from observations, videos, lengthy interviews, images, and others.

• Uses the analysis of:

  • Significant statements

  • The generalization of meaning units

  • Development of an “essence” descriptions

• Examples:

  • Comfort ladies during WWII.

  • Rehabilitated drug dependents or rescued trafficked women

Narrative Research

Qualitative Research Design:

• Employs re-storying the participants’ stories using structural elements such as plot, setting, activities, climax, and denouement

Grounded Theory

Qualitative Research Design:

• The theory or general pattern of understanding will emerge as it begins with initial codes, develops into broad themes or domains and redounds into a broad interpretation.

• An attempt to extract a general abstract theory of a process, or interaction grounded in views of research participants.

Probability & Non-probability Sampling

• What are the 2 types of Qualitative Sampling?

Convenience Sampling

Non-Probability Sampling:

• Units are selected in an arbitrary manner with little or no planning involved.

• Haphazard sampling assumes that the population units are all alike, then any unit may be chosen for the sample.

• Unfortunately, unless the population units are truly similar, selection is subject to the biases of the interviewer and whoever happened to walk by at the time of sampling.

Quota Sampling

Non-Probability Sampling:

• This is one of the most common forms of non-probability sampling.

• Sampling is done until a specific number of units (quotas) for various subpopulations have been selected.

• It is a means for satisfying sample size objectives for the subpopulations.

• Maybe based on population proportions

• considered preferable to other forms of non-probability sampling (e.g., judgment sampling) because it forces the inclusion of members of different subpopulations.

• Similar to stratified sampling, which is probability sampling, in that similar units are grouped together.

Judgement Sampling

Non-Probability Sampling:

• With this method, sampling is done based on previous ideas of population composition and behaviour.

• An expert with knowledge of the population decides which units in the population should be sampled.

• In other words, the expert purposely selects what is considered to be a representative sample.

• is subject to the researcher’s biases and is perhaps even more biased than haphazard sampling

• Since any preconceptions the researcher has are reflected in the sample, large biases can be introduced if these preconceptions are inaccurate.

• However, it can be useful in exploratory studies, for example in selecting members for focus groups or in-depth interviews to test specific aspects of a questionnaire.

Simple Random Sampling

Probability Sampling:

• Is an entirely random method of selecting the sample.

• This sampling method is as easy as assigning numbers to the individuals (sample) and then randomly choosing from those numbers through an automated process.

• Finally, the numbers that are chosen are the members that are included in the sample.

• There are two ways in which researchers choose the samples in this method of sampling: The lottery system and using number-generating software/ random number table.

• This sampling technique usually works around a large population and has its fair share of advantages and disadvantages.

Stratified Random Sampling

Probability Sampling:

• It involves a method where the researcher divides a more extensive population into smaller groups that usually don’t overlap but represent the entire population.

• While sampling, organize these groups and draw a sample from each group separately.

Random Quota Sampling

• A standard method in stratified random sampling to arrange or classify by sex, age, ethnicity, and similar ways.

• Splitting subjects into mutually exclusive groups and then using simple random sampling to choose members from groups.

• Members of these groups should be distinct so that every member of all groups get equal opportunity to be selected using simple probability.

Cluster Sampling

Probability Sampling:

• usually analyzes a particular population in which the sample consists of more than a few elements, for example, city, family, university, etc. Researchers then select the clusters by dividing the population into various smaller sections.

Random Cluster Sampling

• A way to select participants randomly that are spread out geographically.

• For example, if you wanted to choose 100 participants from the entire population of the U.S., it is likely impossible to get a complete list of everyone. Instead, the researcher randomly selects areas (i.e., cities or counties) and randomly selects from within those boundaries.

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Systematic Sampling

Probability Sampling:

• When you choose every “nth” individual to be a part of the sample.

• For example, you can select every 5th person in the sample.

• Extended implementation of the same old probability technique in which each group member is selected at regular periods to form a sample.

• There’s an equal opportunity for every member of a population to be selected using this sampling technique.

Quantitative

Research Designs:

• establish a relationship to develop generalizations/generally more objective

• data can be analyzed using statistics

• DESCRIPTIVE: what, when, where, status, what is happening now

• CORRELATIONAL: association or relationship between variables

• EXPERIMENTAL: control group vs. treatment group

• HISTORICAL: secondary data used to predict variable behavior

• CAUSAL: cause-and-effect of IV and DV

Qualitative

Research Designs

• natural settings/complexity of phenomenon/ data from sources like observation and interviews/time-consuming

• data from it can be employed in different sets of methods

Interview

Data Collection Method:

• oral exchange

• Research participants are prodded to talk about their experiences, feelings, beliefs, outlooks, etc.

• can take the form of informal conversations, open-ended, interviews, or in-depth discussions.

• Ideally suited for experience type of research questions.

• PRO: more structured, formal, high response rate, possible follow-ups

• CONS: time-consuming expensive

Questionnaire

Data Collection Method:

• Schedule of questions

• A paper containing a list of questions, including a specific place and space in the article where you write the answers to the questions.

• A set of printed or written questions with a choice of answers devised for the purposes of a survey or statistical study.

• PRO: Large Sample Size, Different Methods, Confidentiality

• CONS: Low Response Rate, Needs a lot of planning

Document

Data Collection Method:

• secondary data(published)

• These take the form of public documents (newspapers, minutes of the meetings, official reports) or private documents (personal journals, diaries, letters, emails) which are all collected during the research process

• PRO: Existing Records

• CONS: Availability Issues, Access

Observation

Data Collection Method:

• Sensory Acquisition

• The researcher takes field notes on the behavior and activities of research participants at the research site or in their natural setting.

• S/he records, in an unstructured or semi-structured (using prior questions that the researcher wants to know)

• PRO: Used for behavioral problems, Qualitative Data

• CONS: Researcher bias, Sensory Limitations

Experiment

Data Collection Method:

• treatment vs. control

• PRO: Specific Use

• CONS: Difficulty in ensuring reliability

• Appropriateness (based on design and RQ)

• Respondent (age, location, number)

• Types of questions

• Need for follow up and clarifications

• Response rate and sampling methods

• Resources (time, no. of researchers, money)

• Reliability and credibility of source

• FACTORS AFFECTING CHOICE OF DATA COLLECTION METHODS

Data

• response/reaction/body of knowledge/transient

• meaningless unless analyzed; when processed, becomes information

Primary Data

• first-hand information through observation, questionnaire, or interview gathered by the researcher

Secondary Data

• published data gathered by previous authors

• To present accurate and reliable data.

• Yields a sound decision making

• The purpose of analyzing data

Nominal, Ordinal, Interval & Ratio

• What are the four data measurement levels from lowest to highest

a. Structured Interviews

b. Unstructured Interviews

c. semi-structured Interviews

Types of Interviews:

a. Use a set of questions prepared by the researcher.

b. Use open-ended questions which the interviewee or research participant answers freely.

c. Use both closed and open-ended questions

Focus Group Interview

Primary Data Collection Techniques:

• 6-8 persons participate in the interview.

• The advantage of this is that critical issues or sensitive ones can be more freely discussed with a group.

• Because of the variety and depth of opinions, views, perspectives expressed, this type of interview is a very rich source of data.

Participants Observation

Primary Data Collection Techniques:

• In this method, the researcher immerse himself/herself in the natural setting of the research participant.

• This can be a home, an office, an institution, etc.

• The participant observes and participates fully in the activities of the group, the members of which are aware that the participant observer is a researcher.

Observational Evaluation

Primary Data Collection Techniques:

• Researcher may or may not participate in activities of the group being observed.

• But mostly, observes and records both the verbal and non-verbal behavior of the person or group of persons.

• Some researchers use especially designed evaluation instruments to collect observational data.

Biography/Autobiography

Primary Data Collection Techniques:

• Offer a rich source of data or evidence that can shed light or provide tentative answers to research questions.

• Perhaps even diaries can be added here, just like the Diary of Ann Frank that offered much information or evidence on Nazi atrocities.