Critical Thinking Midterm Review

good critical thinker

a person who will not believe a claim unless it is supported by good reason/arguments, and when making claims to others they provide good reasons/arguments to support their claims

bad critical thinker

someone who will believe claims that are not supported by good reasons/evidence, and when making claims to others, they do not provide good reason/arguments to support their claims

Argument

A set of 2 or more sentences where one of the sentences is the conclusion and all the other sentences are premises

Premise

the reason/evidence that support the conclusion

Conclusion

the statement that you are trying to prove to be true

Truth

when what a sentence says matches the facts of reality

Belief

when a person thinks that a sentence/statement is true

Conclusion indicator words

So, therefore, thus, hence, consequently, accordingly, in conclusion, it follows that, ergo

Premise indicator words

Since, because, due to the fact that, given that, insofar as, on account of

Imperative sentence

Commands

Interrogative sentence

Questions

Assertoric sentence

A sentence that is either true or false

Deductively valid argument

if all the premises are true, then the conclusion must also be true

Sound argument

when a deductively valid argument has all true premises

Example of a valid but not sound argument

1. All dogs can talk. 2. Dobermans are dogs. Dobermans can talk.

Example of a sound argument

1. All dogs are mammals. 2. German Shepherds are dogs. German Shepherds are mammals.

Inductively strong argument

if all of the premises are true, then the conclusion is highly likely to also be true

Example of inductively strong argument

The sun comes up every morning for billions of years. The sun will come up tomorrow.

Inductively weak argument

if the premises do not provide strong support for the conclusion

Example of inductively weak argument

I won the lottery today. Therefore, I will win the lottery tomorrow.

Disjunctive syllogism

Either A or B. Not B. A

Example of disjunctive syllogism

Either I will have apples or bananas. I didn't have apples. I had bananas.

Modus ponens

If A then B. A. Therefore, B.

Example of modus ponens

If I'm in Fullerton, then I'm in California. I'm in Fullerton. I'm in California.

Modus tollens

If A, then B. Not B. Therefore, Not A.

Example of modus tollens

If I'm in Fullerton, then I'm in California. I'm not in California. I'm not in Fullerton.

Chain argument

If A then B. If B then C. If C then D. Therefore, If A then D.

Example of chain argument

If I'm in Fullerton, then I'm in California. If I'm in California, then I'm in the United States. If I'm in Fullerton, then I'm in the United States.

Standard form of an argument

Premises listed vertically with the conclusion below.

Milgram experiment

a series of psychological experiments that demonstrated the human tendency to obey authority figures, even when the instructions conflict with one's morals.

Zimbardo/Stanford Prison Experiment

A study that observed the effects of assigned roles and situational power, showing how good people can become cruel and authoritative.

Stages of Cognitive Development

1. Dualism: truth is all black and white and authority figures have the answers. 2. Relativism: truth is personal opinion, all opinions are equal. 3. Commitment: person commits to their views based on reason and evidence.

Confirmation Bias

Only seeking information that already supports what you believe.

Analytical Skills

Ability to provide logical support for your beliefs instead of having unfounded opinions.

Effective Communication

Ability to speak, listen, and write well, adapting to different communication styles.

Research/Inquiry Skills

Ability to gather, evaluate, and compile information for research purposes.

Flexibility

Ability to change one's mind/plans and be open to alternative ideas.

Open-Minded Skepticism

Only believe what can be proven, while keeping an open mind until then.

Method of Doubt

Assume to be false anything that can possibly be doubted.

Collaborative Learning

Take context and relationships into consideration in making decisions.

Creative Problem Solving

View problems from multiple perspectives.

Importance of Critical Thinking in Democracy

It empowers individuals to make informed decisions, resist manipulation, and engage in public discourse.

Rational Life Plan

Critical thinking allows for better life decisions and boosts self-esteem through well-reasoned choices.

Three-Tier Model of Critical Thinking

1. Experience: describe the event without explanation. 2. Interpretation: explain why/how it happened, potentially clouded by bias. 3. Analysis: reconsider previous interpretations for better explanations.

Obstacles to Critical Thinking

Factors that hinder the ability to think critically.

Avoidance

Avoiding people or info that conflicts with your views

Anger

Instead of critically analyzing an opposing view, one gets angry at the person or source who presents the view

Clichés

Overused one-liner phrases that seek to end critical discussion (ex: agree to disagree, to each their own, that's how the cookie crumbles, whatever floats your boat)

Denial

One denies alternative views instead of analyzing their merit

Ignorance

Deliberately remaining uninformed in order to avoid taking an action or position

Conformity

Adopting the majority/popular view in order to fit in and avoid standing out

Struggling

Endlessly debating what action or position to take and never reaching a conclusion

Absolutism

Lacking the ability to stand up to authority and always assuming they are absolutely correct

Egocentrism

Thinking that you are the center of everything, better and smarter than others, and having low respect for others' views

Ethnocentrism

Unjustified belief in the superiority of one's race, group, or culture

Anthropocentrism

Belief that mankind is the center of everything, so animals and nature don't matter as much

Rationalization

Acting without critical thought and then later coming up with a rational-sounding explanation.

Double think

Believing two opposite things at the same time

Language

A system of communication that involves a set of symbols which can be either spoken, written, or non-verbal

Informative function of language

To make statements that are either true or false

Directive function of language

Use of imperatives (commands) to direct or influence actions

Expressive function of language

Communicates feelings and attitudes, and is used to bring about an emotional impact

Ceremonial function of language

Used in formal/official settings

Denotative meaning

Expresses the essential attributes of something, like an official dictionary definition

Connotative meaning

Based on past experiences and association, and can therefore be either positive or negative

Stipulative definition

Given to new things that emerge within our language

Theoretical definition

Used to define scientific terms and concepts

Operational definition

Use of a boundary or threshold in order to create standardization

Persuasive definition

Used to get others to accept one's point of view without argument

Criteria for evaluating a definition

1. Neither too broad nor too narrow 2. States all essential attributes 3. Not circular 4. Doesn't include overly technical or obscure language 5. Avoids emotional language

Euphemism

Replacing a negative or neutral word with a positive one in order to sugarcoat the truth

Dysphemism

Replacing a positive or neutral word with a negative one to create disapproval

Sarcasm

Using ridicule, irony, or mild taunting to make light of something or deflect critical analysis

Hyperbole

The use of exaggeration or overstatement to distort the truth

Deception

Act of convincing someone of untrue information

Active deception

To deliberately say something false in order to mislead (lying)

Passive deception

Withholding the truth

Aggressive communication style

One wants to get their way at all cost, even if this damages their relationships with people

Aggressive

one wants to get their way at all cost, even if this damages their relationships with people

Passive

one wants to avoid confrontation at all costs and backs down easily

Assertive

one says what they want or need openly and honestly, but knows when to back off to avoid harming their relationships

Passive Aggressive

one will not say what they want openly and honestly, but uses indirect strategies of manipulation to get their way

Knowledge

information that we believe, which is true, and for which we have justification

Rationalism

most human knowledge comes from reason, ideas, and abstract thought

Empiricism

most human knowledge comes from the 5 senses and observation

Evidence

something that can prove or disprove a claim

Reliable sources of evidence

Direct experience, testimony, memory, inference

False memory

when a person thinks that they have a memory of something that did not actually happen

Qualities of expert testimony

Education, experience, reputation, accomplishments

Anecdotal evidence

evidence that is based only on one person's story/experience

Hearsay

testimony that passes through several people before you hear it

CRAAP test

Currency - how current is the information; Relevance - is information relevant or related to your research; Accuracy - is information true, accurate, can it be fact checked; Authority - consider the source, what intellectual authority do they have; Purpose - why was the information created, for what purpose was the information supplied

Research resources

Internet, library, government documents, academic journals, dictionary/encyclopedia

War of the Worlds radio broadcast

a radio broadcast that reenacted H.G. Wells' book, War of the Worlds, about a Martian invasion to the nation. People who listened believed that the invasion was real, and some even believed that they "smelled" poisonous Martian gas or "felt" heat rays. Their perception of the world was skewed by social influences.

Memorable events error

placing more importance on an event than it deserves, just because the event was uncommon

Misperception of Random Data

when a person thinks that they perceive order or a pattern in something that is actually random

Probability error

when you miscalculate the probability of an event by a significant margin that can either be an underestimation or an overestimation

Self-fulfilling prophecy

when your expectation of an event ends up causing the event to happen

One of us versus one of them error

dividing people into groups of us and them, and then showing less respect to "them"

Diffusion of responsibility

in a group setting when no individual feels personally responsible to take action, so no action gets taken