SLP Praxis Terminology Jan 2025

vocalization (phonological process)

vowel is substituted for a syllabic consonant (usually a liquid)

ex: bottle-->bado or noodle-->noodoo

gliding (phonological process)

liquid consonant is produced as a glide, common substitutions are w/l, j/l, and w/r

ex: lamp-->wamp or jamp

velar fronting (phonological process)

alveolar or dental replaces a velar sound, usually in the initial position

ex: ki-->ti or gout-->tout

stopping (phonological process)

fricative or affricate is replaced by a stop sound

ex: shoe-->too or this-->dis

depalatization (phonological process)

substitution of an alveolar affricate for a palatal affricate

ex: wish-->wis or ship-->sip

affrication (phonological process)

affricate is produced instead of a fricative or stop sound

ex: shoe-->chew

deaffrication (phonological process)

fricative replaces an affricate sound

ex: chip-->sip or page-->pays

backing (phonological process)

consonant is produced further back than it is supposed to be, such as substituting a velar for an alveolar sound

ex: den-->gen

glottal replacement (phonological process)

glottal stop is produced in place of other consonants

reduplication (phonological process)

repeating a phonological pattern

ex: water-->wawa

regressive assimilation/consonant harmony (phonological process)

later occurring sound impacts earlier occurring sound, usually for place of articulation

ex: duck-->guck or zip-->bip

progressive assimilation/consonant harmony (phonological process)

earlier occurring sound influences later occurring sound, usually for place of articulation

ex: kiss-->kick or but-->bup

voicing assimilation (phonological process)

voicing or devoicing a sound depending on the other sounds occurring in its environment

ex: pig-->pick or pad-->bad

unstressed/weak syllable deletion (phonological process)

omission of unstressed syllable

ex: tomato-->mato

final consonant deletion (phonological process)

final consonant is omitted

ex: bed-->be

epenthesis (phonological process)

shwa is inserted between consonants in an initial consonant cluster or after a final voiced stop

ex: try-->tuhry or good-->gooduh

consonant-cluster simplification/reduction (phonological process)

consonant/consonant cluster is deleted

ex: best-->bes or spun-->pun

diminutization (phonological process)

addition of /i/ to target form

ex: egg-->eggy

metathesis (phonological process)

production of sounds in reverse order, aka spoonerisms

ex: spaghetti-->pisghetti

behavioral theory of ssd

speech sound acquisition is based on conditioning and learning with observable and overt behaviors without innate universals; prevailing theory from the 1950s to the early 1970s; emphasizes that children develop adult-like speech through caregiver interactions through classical conditioning; there is limited evidence to support this theory as it does not account for creativity or capacity to create new patterns, along with the caregiver's ability to selectively reinforce prelinguistic sounds

natural phonology theory of ssd

there are natural, innate phonological processes that simplify adult speech; children learn to suppress processes that do not occur in their languages; children represent or store speech forms correctly and use phonological processes as output constraints to simplify adult models; developed by Stampe; controversial theory without empirical evidence and it does not account for nonnatural simplifications of speech

generative phonology theory of ssd

two main ideas: phonological descriptions are dependent on information from other linguistic levels and phonological rules map underlying representations onto surface pronunciations; enables a description of the relationship of children and adult productions; not a broadly applied theory

linear vs nonlinear theory of ssd

linear: goals are to describe phonological patterns that occur in natural languages, create rules for these systems, and identify these universal principals; based on the premise that all speech segments are sequential with equal value and equal distinctive features; does not account for stress or prosody

nonlinear: developed in the 1980s as an alternative; deemphasize process of rules and focus on prosodic phenomena; assume there is a hierarchy to help with segmental and suprasegmental properties/units; pays attention to multisyllabic words and syllable structure

optimality theory of ssd

originally used to describe adult language; basic units are constraints; markedness constraints denote limitations on output, sounds that are hard to make are marked (like R); faithfulness constraints capture the features that are to be preserved, prohibiting substitution and deletions that violate the ambient language; goal is for child speech to match adult's by demoting markedness and promoting faithfulness

perception (infant development)

the high-amplitude sucking paradigm and visually reinforced head turn have both been used to study infants' reactions to changes in their environment, finding that they are able to distinguish between speech sounds not found in their native language, though these skills begin to decline around 12m of age

differences in infant vocal tract

high larynx, tongue far forward in oral cavity, smaller oral cavity, velum and epiglottis close together (grow further apart between 4-6 m)

phonation stage (Oller)

birth-1m; mostly reflexive verbalizations (i.e. burping, crying, coughing); some nonreflexive vowels or syllabic consonants may occur

cooing/gooing stage (Oller)

2-4m; most productions sound like /u/; some velar consonant-like sounds may occur

expansion stage (Oller)

4-6m; "playing" with speech; growls, yells, squeals, raspberries (bilabial trills); some consonant vowel like combinations and vowel like sounds may be produced

canonical or reduplicated babbling stage (Oller)

6-8m; strings of CV syllables (e.g.mamama, dadadada) though the infant may not have sound-meaning correspondence, the timing may approximate that of adult speech; by 8m children with hearing loss fall behind hearing peers in language development

variegated or nonreduplicated babbling stage (Oller)

8m-1yr; infant continues to use adult-like syllables in CV sequences; but a variety of consonants and vowels appear in a single vocalization

Early 13 Sounds (ages 2;0-3;11)

/b, m, p, n, w, d, h, k, g, f, t, ŋ/

Middle 7 Sounds (ages 4;0 to 4;11)

/s, v, dʒ, l, z, ʃ, tʃ/

Late 4 Sounds (ages 5;0 to 6;11)

/ɹ, ʒ, θ, ð/

intelligibility expectations for children

2 yrs: 60%-70%

3yrs: 75%-80%

4yrs: 90%-100%

factors impacting speech sound disorders

gender: some evidence that more males have ssds

intelligence: severe ID increases risk

age/birth order: younger siblings that are closer in age to older siblings are more likely to have ssds

SES: some evidence to show low SES may be a factor

language development/academics: children with ssds are more likely to have language disorders/delays and reading/spelling difficulties

auditory discrimination: no strong correlation between auditory discrimination skills and ssd

substitution (articulatory error)

incorrect sound is produced in place of a correct sound

omission/deletion (articulatory error)

required sounds are omitted in words

labialization (articulatory error)

sounds are produced with excess lip rounding

nasalization (articulatory error)

oral sounds (especially oral stops like /g/) are produced with inappropriate nasal resonance

pharyngeal fricative (articulatory error)

fricatives such as /h/ are produced in the pharyngeal area

devoicing (articulatory error)

voiced sounds are produced with limited vocal fold vibrations or without vocal fold vibrations

frontal lisp (articulatory error)

sibilant consonants are produced with the tongue tip placed too far forward (b/w or against teeth); usually /s/ and /z/

lateral lisp (articulatory error)

sibilant sounds such as /s/ and /z/ are produced by air flowing inappropriately over the sides of the tongue

stridency deletion (articulatory error)

strident sounds are deleted/omitted; sometimes described as a phonological pattern

initial/medial/final position errors (articulatory error)

errors in production of beginning, medial, or final sound of a word

prevocalic, intervocalic, postvocalic errors (articulatory error)

errors occur with reference to consonant position in syllables would involve a postvocalic error

ankyloglossia (tongue tie)

when the lingual frenulum is too short and impairs tongue tip mobility; used to be more common to cut the frenulum, but research has shown that a tongue tie does not normally impact articulation

class I dental malocclusions

proper alignment of upper maxilla and lower mandible, but some individual teeth may be misaligned

class II dental malocclusions

upper jaw/maxilla is protruded and the lower/jaw mandible is receded; aka overbite

overjet occurs when upper teeth are positioned excessively anterior to the lower teeth

class III dental malocclusions

maxilla is receded and the mandible is protruded; aka underbite

oral-motor coordination

frequently assessed through diadochokinetic rate; relationship between these skills and artic is still debated

stuttering (definition based on expert judgement)

judged by an expert; does not specify the behavior or action that is observed; a moment in speech or an event

stuttering (definition based on types of dysfluencies)

part-word repetitions and speech-sound prolongations according to some classic definitions; prolongation of speech sounds and repetition of sounds, syllables, or words (Van Riper); higher frequency of stuttering-like dysfluencies, which include repetitions of sounds, syllables, and monosyllabic words and sound prolongations

stuttering (definition based on frequency and duration of all types of dysfluencies)

at atypically high frequencies, all forms of dysfluencies evoke judgements of stuttering from listening; usually at least 5% of the time; stuttering is the production of any or all forms of dysfluencies of excessive frequency, excessive durations, or both

repetitions (dysfluency)

part-word, whole-word, or phrases

prolongations (dysfluency)

sound or silent (holding articulatory posture without sound)

pauses/stops (dysfluency)

silent intervals in speech at inappropriate junctures; can also occur within words to result in broken words

interjections (dysfluency)

sound/syllable (ex: um), word (ex: like, okay), phrase (ex: you know)

incomplete sentences (dysfluency)

grammatically incomplete productions

ex: Last summer I was...last summer...we went to Paris.

revisions (dysfluency)

changes in wording that do not change the overall meaning of an utterance

ex: Let me have coffee, maybe tea.

incidence of stuttering

lifetime expectancy of 5-11% of the population; prevalence of about 1%; affects all populations; typically begins between ages 3-6; more common in males with a 3:1 ratio in early elementary; risk of stuttering is 3x higher if you have a family member who stutters, especially if the mother stutters; prevalence may be higher with ID

concordance with stuttering

concordance is when twins have the same medical condition; rate of stuttering for identical (monozygotic) twins is higher than for fraternal (dizygotic) twins, and higher for fraternal twins than normal siblings

natural recovery of stuttering

aka spontaneous recovery; 45-80%

persistence of stuttering

variables associated include family history, older age onset, lower articulation and language skills, and higher frequency of stuttering-like disfluencies

additional characteristics of stuttering

1. associated motor behaviors (aka secondary stuttering; more common in adults; excess muscular effort, facial grimace, hand and foot movement, rapid eye blinking, knitting eyebrows, lip pursing, rapid mouth opening/closing, tongue clicking)

2. associated breathing abnormalities (more common in adults; absent in fluent speech; attempts to speak on inhalation, holding breath before talking, continued attempts to to speak without air, speaking without sufficient inhalation, rapid and jerky breathing during speech, exhaling puffs of air during stuttered speech, generally tensed breathing)

3. negative emotions and avoidance behaviors (more in adults; anxiety and frustration, humiliation and hostility, avoidance of speaking, circumlocution, avoidance of eye contact

behavioral theory of language development

based on B. F. Skinner; learning is behind acquisition of verbal behaviors, so language is not innate; effects of environment and social interactions; antecedents and reinforcers

spinal column

7 cervical vertebrae (C1-C7)

12 thoracic vertebrae (T1-T12)

5 lumbar vertebrae (L1-L5)

5 sacral vertebrae (S1-S5), fused in adults

3-4 coccygeal vertebrae (fused and called the coccyx)

diaphragm

primary muscle of inspiration; under lungs/floor of chest cavity; expands thoracic cavity

intercostal muscles

muscles between the ribs; internal intercostals pull ribs downward for exhalation; external intercostals raise ribs for inhalation

adduction

move towards midline

abduction

moving away from midline

laryngeal cartilage

thyroid cartilage (cornu extend to meet hyoid bone), cricoid cartilage (completely surrounds trachea), arytenoid cartilage (connected cricoid; muscular and vocal processes; in charge of abducting and adducting vocal folds), corniculate cartilages (sit on top of arytenoids)

internal laryngeal muscles

thyroarytenoid (internal and external, part of the vocal folds) EDITTTTTTTT

cranial nerve I (CNI)

olfactory, involved with smell

cranial nerve II (CNII)

optic, involved with vision

cranial nerve III (CNIII)

oculomotor, involved with eye movement

cranial nerve IV (CNIV)

trochlear, involved with eye movement

cranial nerve V (CNV)

trigeminal, sensory innervation (nose, eyes, forehead, lower face, anterior 2/3 of tongue), motor innervation (jaw movement)

cranial nerve VI (CNVI)

abducens, involved with eye movement

cranial nerve VII (CNVII)

facial, sensory innervation (taste on anterior 2/3 of tongue), motor innervation (facial movement and expressions)

cranial nerve VIII (CNVIII)

cranial nerve VIII (CNVIII)

cranial nerve IX (CNIX)

cranial nerve X (CNX)

cranial nerve XI (CNXI)

cranial nerve XII (CNXII)