History midterm study set

Treaty of Versailles

Treaty that officially ended ww1 but placed extremely harsh conditions on Germany. It forced Germany to accept full blame for the war, pay massive reparations, and give up territory and colonies. The German military was also heavily restricted, creating resentment and humiliation among Germans. These harsh terms destabilized the Weimar Republic and helped fuel the rise of extremist movements like Nazism

Weimar Republic

Was Germany’s democratic government established after ww1. It faced immediate challenges, including economic crises, political extremism and resentment towards the treaty of Versailles. Hyperinflation in the early 1920s destroyed savings and weakened faith in democracy. Many Germans blamed Weimar leaders for national humiliation, paving the way for Hitler’s rise. 

Mein Kampf

Hitler’s autobiography and political manifesto, written during his imprisonment. In it, he outlines his ideology, including extreme nationalist, anti-semitisn, and the need for levensraum for Germans. The book blamed jews and communists for Germany's problems and called for overturning the treaty of Versillales. It became the foundation of nazi beliefs once hitler gained power. 

Nazism

 "National Socialism”, combined intense nationalism, racial superiority, anti-communism, and a cult of personality around Hitler. The movement rejected democracy and promoted authoritarian control and militarism. Nazism sought to rebuild Germany's power and expand its territory while eliminating groups considered inferior, especially jews. 

Anti-Comintern

signed between Germany and Japan, the pact was aimed at opposing the Communist International, or Comintern, led by the Soviet Union. It symbolized the growing alliance between fascist powers against communism. Italy later joined, strengthening cooperation among the Axis powers. The pact also reflected Hitler’s broader goal of destroying communism and gaining support for his anti-Soviet stance. 

German Domestic Issues in the 30s

During the 1930s, Germany faced unemployment, inflation, and the lingering effects of the Great depression. Hitler’s regime used these struggles to justify authoritarian control and massive state-led economic reforms. Public works programs, rearmament, and propaganda helped reduce unemployment and restore national pride. These domestic policies gained Hitler support while secretly preparing Germany for war. 

Dawes Plan

An international effort to stabilize Germany’s economy after the first world war. It reduced reparations payments and allowed American loans to help rebuild the German economy. This temporarily ended the hyperinflation crisis and improved relations with Western powers. However, it also made Germany dependent on US loans which collapsed during the great depression. 

Young Plan

Further revised German’s war reparations and extended the payment period. It aimed to make the financial burden more manageable and was seen as a move toward economic recovery. However, many Germans still opposed it, viewing any reparation payments as unfair. The plan’s implementation was disrupted by the global economic crash shortly after.

League of Nations

International organization created after ww1 to maintain peace and prevent future conflicts. Germany initially was excluded but later joined in 1926 under the Weimar Republic. The League’s failure to act decisively against aggression in the 1930s such as Japan’s invasion of Manchuria and Italy’s in Ethiopia, showed its weakness. Histler’s Germany withdrew from the League in 1933, signaling its rejection of the post-war order.

The Four Year Plan

An economic program designed to prepare Germany for war within four years. Led by Hermann Göring, it aimed to achieve self-sufficiency in raw materials and boost production. The plan focused on autarky and mobilizing the economy for military readiness. It marked Germany’s shift toward total war preparation and economic independence. 

Autarky

refers to economic self-sufficiency, a goal of Nazi policy under the Four Year Plan. Hitler wanted Germany to reduce dependence on foreign imports, especially for food and raw materials. This policy aimed to strengthen Germany's ability to wage war without relying on other nations. However, achieving true autarky was unrealistic, and Germany still relied on trade for key resources

Rearmament

Hitler’s policy of rebuilding the German military in violation of the treaty of Versailles. Starting secretly in the early 1930s, it expanded rapidly after 1935 when conscription was reintroduced. Rearmament created jobs and boosted national pride while preparing for war. Britain and France protested but largely tolerated it, encouraging further German aggression.

Poland Non-Aggression Pact

 an agreement between Germany and Poland to settle disputes peacefully for ten years. It was meant to reassure Poland and show that hitler’s aims were peaceful. However, it also helped Germany weaken Fra

Anglo-German Naval Agreement

allowed Germany to rebuild its navy to 35% the size of Britain. Britain hoped it would limit German expansion and maintain peace through negotiation. Instead, it legitimized Germany's rearmament and undermined the treaty of Versailles. It also created tension between Britain and France, who felt it weakened their united front. 

Rome-Berlin Axis / Pact of Steel

alliance between Italy and Germany that was formalized into a military alliance during the pact of steel. Allowed Germany to be more expansionist with an ally. These agreements laid the foundation for the axis powers during ww2.

Nazi-Soviet Pact

a non-aggression agreement between Germany and the Soviet Union. It shocked the world since the two regimes were ideological enemies. The pact included a secret clause dividing eastern Europe into a sphere of influence, allowing Hitlerto invade Poland without fear of Soviet intervention. This agreement directly led to the outbreak of WW2

Tripartite Act

formal military alliance between Germany, Italy, and Japan. It aimed to deter the United States from entering the war by promising mutual assistance among the axis powers. This pact confirmed the global expansion of axis influence. It demonstrated the unification of european and asian fascist powers. 

Rhineland

In 1936 Hitler remilitarized the Rhineland, violating the treaty of versailles and the locarno pact. The region had been demilitarized after WW1 to protect France from invasion. France and Britain failed to respond, which emboldened hitler to take greater risks. This was a turning point that proved the allies’ unwillingness to stop German aggression

Austria / Anschuluss

The Anschluss was the annexation of Austria by mazi Germany. Hitler justified it as the unification of all German speaking people under one nation. The move was achieved without resistance and welcomed by many Austrians. Britain and France failed to intervene, further encouraging hitler’s expansionist ambitions

Olympics

The 1938 Berlin Olympics were used by hitler as a propaganda tool to promote the image of a strong, peaceful, and united Germany. The nazi regime aimed to showcase aryan superiority throughout athletic achievement. However, African American athlete Jesse Owens' victories challenged mazi racial ideology. The event temporarily softened Germany's image abroad while hiding its growing militarism

Czechoslovakia

became a major target of hitlers expansion after Austria. In 1930, he demanded control of Sudetenland, claiming to protect ethnic Germans. After the Munich agreement, Germany occupied the Sudetenland, and by march 1939, hitler took over the rest of the country. This showed that appeasement had failed and that hitler’s ambitions went beyond uniting German-speaking people

Munich Agreement

allowed Germany to annex the Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia. Britain and France agreed in hopes of avoiding war, following a policy of appeasement. Hitler promised this would be his last territorial demand, but he soon broke that pledge. The agreement is now seen as a symbol of the danger of appeasement

Spanish Civil War

became a testing group for hitler’s and Mussolini's  militaries. They supported general Franco's nationalist forces against the left-wing republicans. Germany's condor legion used the war to test new weapons and tactics, including aerial bombing. This war strengthened ties among fascist powers and provided military experience for ww2

Sudetenland Crisis

involved hitlers demand to annex the German-speaking border region of Czechoslovakia. He claimed ethnic Germans there were being mistreated, using it as an excuse for expansion. This crisis led to the Munich agreement, where Britain and France conceded to his demands that only encouraged further aggression

British / France timeline of international responses

they followed a policy of appeasement during the 1930s, hoping to prevent another world war. They tolerated German rearmament in 1935, the remilitarization of the Rhineland in 1936, and the anschluss in 1938. The Munich agreement represented their peak appeasement effort. Only after hitler invaded Poland in 1939 did Britain and France declare war on Germany

The Hossbach Memorandum

a summary of a 1937 meeting where Hitler revealed his long-term expansionists plans to his military leaders. He discussed the need for living space in eastern Europe and hinted at future invasions. The document showed the hitler was already preparing for war years before it began. It later became key evidence of his aggressive intent

The Saar Plebiscite

in 1935 the Saar region held a plebiscite (vote of the people) to decide whether to remain under League control, join France, or reunite with Germany. Over 90% voted to return to Germany, giving Hitler a major propaganda victory. The event appeared peaceful and democratic, helping to legitimize his regime internationally. It also boosted German morale and support for nazi policies

Stresa Conference

held in 1935, brought together Britain, France, and Italy to oppose hitler’s rearmament and maintain the treaty of Versailles. The three countries agreed to stand against German aggression in Europe. However, the unity was short lived when Italy invaded Ethiopia, causing tension with Britain and France, the collapse of cooperation allowed Germany to act more freely

Locarno Treaties

agreement in which Germany accepted its western border with France and Belgium as defined in the treaty of Versailles. This helped Germany re-enter the international community and led to its admission to the league of nations. It symbolized a temporary period of peace and cooperation before hitler reversed it

Kellogg-Briand Pact

an international agreement where countries pledged not to use war to resolve disputes, Germany signed it, showing supposed commitment to peace. However, it had no real enforcement, so hitler later ignored it entirely

Invasion of Poland

in september 1930, germany invaded poland, using the false claim that polish forces had attacked germany territory as justification. The invasion was carried out with “Blitzkrieg” tactics, meaning “lightning war,” which combined fast-moving tanks, air raids, and infantry to overwhelm Polish defenses. This invasion violated the Poland non-aggression pact and shocked the world leading to Britain and France to declare war on Germany, officially starting WW2. The nazi-soviet pact also came into play, as the USSR invaded Poland from the east later that month, dividing the country between two powers

Nazi Propaganda

led by Joseph Goebbels, was a powerful tool the regime used to control public opinion and spread ideology. It glorified hitler, promoted nationalism, and encouraged loyalty to the nazi state. Propaganda was especially successful in portraying hitler as a heroic, almost divine leader and in convincing many Germans that rearmament and territorial expansion were restoring national pride. It also worked effectively in creating anti-semetic attitudes, particularly after the Nuremberg laws by normalizing discrimination against jews. During the 1936 Berlin olympics, nazi propaganda reached its peak of international success, presenting Germany as peaceful and strong while hiding its growing militarization and repression at home

Fascism (Italy)

An authoritarian political ideology emphasizing extreme nationalism, glorification of the state over the individual, militarism, anti-communism, and rejection of democracy. Under Mussolini, fascism promoted one-party rule, propaganda, a cult of personality around Il Duce, and expansionist foreign policy aimed at restoring Italy as a great power

Weaknesses of Liberal Italy

Italy’s pre-Fascist government was weakened by unstable coalition politics, economic problems after WWI (inflation, unemployment, debt), regional divisions between North and South, social unrest, and poor military preparedness. These failures made Italians receptive to authoritarian solutions

Irredentism

A nationalist movement aimed at reclaiming territories inhabited by ethnic Italians, such as South Tyrol, Istria, and the Dalmatian coast. It shaped Italy’s decision to enter WWI and later justified fascist expansionism

Fiume Crisis

In 1919, nationalist poet Gabriele D’Annunzio led armed volunteers to seize Fiume (now Rijeka, Croatia). The liberal government’s failure to stop him exposed its weakness and encouraged fascist nationalism. Fiume was later annexed under Mussolini

Acerbo Law (1923)

Law passed by Mussolini granting two-thirds of parliamentary seats to the party that won at least 25% of the vote. It enabled fascist domination of parliament and dismantled democratic opposition.

Battle for the Lira

Policy to strengthen the Italian currency by fixing it at “Quota 90” against the British pound. Though it boosted national prestige, it overvalued the lira, hurt exports, and damaged industry and agriculture

Battle for Grain

Campaign to increase domestic wheat production and reduce dependence on imports. While it promoted agricultural modernization, it reduced crop diversity and raised food prices

Battle for the South

Effort to modernize southern Italy (the Mezzogiorno) through infrastructure projects and state investment. Results were limited and largely symbolic

Corfu Crisis (1923)

After Italian officials were killed in Greece, Mussolini bombarded and occupied Corfu. Though the League of Nations intervened, Greece paid reparations, allowing Mussolini to appear strong and exposing League weakness.

Libyan Revolt

Resistance by Sanussi tribes against Italian rule in Libya. Mussolini crushed the revolt using brutal repression, concentration camps, and chemical weapons, securing Italy’s Mediterranean ambitions

Italy and Albania

Italy increased influence through a 1926 treaty, then invaded and occupied Albania in 1939, establishing a puppet state. This expanded Italian control in the Balkans and aligned Italy more closely with Nazi Germany

First Italo-Ethiopian War (1895–1896)

Italy attempted to colonize Ethiopia but was defeated, humiliating Italy and influencing later fascist revenge

Second Italo-Ethiopian War (1935–1936)

Mussolini invaded Ethiopia using tanks, aircraft, and chemical weapons. Despite League of Nations sanctions, Italy succeeded, proving the weakness of collective security and isolating Italy from Britain and France.

Walwal Incident

Border clash between Italian and Ethiopian forces used by Mussolini as a pretext for invasion. The League’s slow and ineffective response encouraged Italian aggression

League of Nations Sanctions on Italy

Weak economic penalties imposed on Italy after invading Ethiopia. They failed to stop Mussolini and discredited collective security

Hoare–Laval Pact

Secret British-French plan to give Italy most of Ethiopia to end the war. When leaked, it caused outrage and was abandoned, pushing Mussolini closer to Hitler

Non-Belligerence

Italy’s initial stance at the start of WWII, remaining officially neutral while supporting Germany diplomatically due to lack of readiness

Italy’s Entry into WWII

Italy joined the war after France was weakened, hoping for easy gains and to avoid falling behind Germany.

Chinese Political Instability (1920s–1930s)

After the fall of the Qing dynasty, China was fragmented by warlordism, civil war between Nationalists and Communists, and weak central authority. This instability made China vulnerable to foreign intervention, particularly Japanese expansion

Chinese Nationalist Party (Guomindang / GMD)

Political party led by Jiang Jieshi that sought to unify China, modernize the state, and eliminate warlords and communists. Despite some success, it struggled with corruption, military weakness, and Japanese aggression

Jiang Jieshi (Chiang Kai-shek)

Leader of the Chinese Nationalist Party and head of the Chinese government. He prioritized fighting communists over resisting Japan early on, weakening China’s response to Japanese invasionv

Why Manchuria Was Important

Manchuria was rich in coal, iron, farmland, and industry, making it vital for Japan’s resource-poor economy. It also provided strategic security and living space for Japan’s growing population

Kwantung Army

Japanese army unit stationed in Manchuria that operated with increasing independence from civilian government control. It played a key role in provoking conflict and driving expansionist policy

Mukden Incident (1931)

A staged explosion on a Japanese railway in Manchuria, blamed on Chinese forces by the Kwantung Army. It was used as a pretext for Japan’s full invasion of Manchuria

Manchukuo

Japanese puppet state established in Manchuria in 1932. Though presented as independent, it was controlled by Japan and used to exploit resources and expand influence

League of Nations Response to Manchuria

The League condemned Japan’s actions but took no meaningful action. Japan withdrew from the League in 1933, demonstrating the failure of collective security

Lytton Commission

League of Nations investigation into the Manchurian Crisis. It concluded Japan was the aggressor but offered no enforcement measures, emboldening further Japanese expansion

Smoot-Hawley Tariff (1930)

US. law raising tariffs on imports. It reduced global trade and hurt Japanese exports, worsening economic conditions and encouraging expansion for resources

Effects of the Great Depression on Japan

Collapse of exports, rural poverty, unemployment, and falling wages. Economic hardship increased support for militarism and expansion as solutions

Tension Between Politicians and the Military

Civilian governments attempted to restrain expansion, while the military acted independently. Weak political institutions allowed the military to dominate policy

Tanaka Cabinet Crisis (1929)

Collapse of Prime Minister Tanaka’s government after failure to discipline military officers involved in unauthorized actions in China. It highlighted civilian weakness

Dark Valley (1930s)

Period of political assassinations, coups, and rising militarism in Japan. Democratic institutions eroded as military leaders gained power

Internal Japanese Faction Struggles

Conflict between moderate civilian leaders and radical militarists, including factions within the army and navy. These struggles destabilized politics and promoted authoritarian rule

Treaty of Tanggu (1933)

Agreement following Japan’s conquest of Manchuria. China recognized Japanese control of Manchuria and created a demilitarized zone, further weakening Chinese sovereignty

Marco Polo Bridge Incident (1937)

Clash between Japanese and Chinese troops near Beijing that escalated into full-scale war

Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945)

Large-scale war between Japan and China marked by brutal fighting, occupation, and atrocities. It drained Japanese resources and escalated regional conflict

Japan–Soviet Neutrality Pact (1941)

Agreement between Japan and the USSR to avoid conflict. It allowed Japan to focus on expansion in Southeast Asia and the Pacific.

International Embargoes on Japan

The U.S. and other Western powers imposed embargoes on oil, steel, and other resources in response to Japanese aggression. These sanctions pressured Japan toward war to secure resources

Washington Naval Conference / Naval Treaties

Agreements limiting naval construction. Japan resented the unequal ratios, fueling nationalist anger