Learning and memory

Differences between B. F. Skinner's behaviorism and Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory

Freud emphasized unconscious drives and internal mental conflicts.

Skinner focused only on observable behavior and environmental contingencies.

Psychoanalysis explored the mind's inner workings; behaviorism rejected mentalism in favor of empirical, observable learning principles

Common idea about conscious thought in both behaviorism and psychoanalysis

Both see conscious thought as not the primary driver of behavior.

Behaviorism often ignores consciousness entirely; psychoanalysis sees it as secondary to unconscious processes.

Three radical claims behaviorism agrees on (from Paul Bloom’s text)

All behavior is learned.

Psychology should only study observable behavior.

The same principles of learning apply across all species

Classical conditioning in Pavlov's dog experiment

Dogs were presented with food (unconditioned stimulus, UCS), which caused salivation (unconditioned response, UCR).

A bell (neutral stimulus) was paired repeatedly with the food.

Eventually, the bell alone (now a conditioned stimulus, CS) caused salivation (conditioned response, CR).

Definitions of key terms (related to classical conditioning):

Neutral stimulus (NS): stimulus that initially elicits no response (e.g., bell before conditioning).

Neutral response: reaction to a neutral stimulus (usually none or unrelated).

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): stimulus that elicits a response without learning (e.g., food).

Unconditioned response (UCR): automatic reaction to UCS (e.g., salivation).

Conditioned stimulus (CS): previously neutral stimulus that elicits a response after conditioning (e.g., bell).

Conditioned response (CR): learned response to the CS (e.g., salivation to bell).

 

Why classical conditioning alone can’t fully explain phobias/aversions

Classical conditioning can’t account for:

 

Cognitive influences on fear.

Individual differences in susceptibility.

Biological preparedness (e.g., easier to condition fear to snakes than flowers).

Role of operant conditioning and observational learning.

 

What is systematic desensitization?

A therapeutic method to reduce phobias by:

Teaching relaxation.

Creating a fear hierarchy.

Gradually exposing the person to the feared stimulus while relaxed.

Operant vs. Classical Conditioning + Thorndike's contribution

Classical: passive association between stimuli (Pavlov).

Operant: active learning via consequences (Skinner).

Thorndike's contribution: Law of Effect—behaviors followed by satisfying outcomes are more likely to be repeated.

Thorndike’s Law of Effect

Behaviors leading to positive outcomes are more likely to be repeated.

Behaviors followed by negative outcomes are less likely to recur.

Terms related to operant conditioning

Reinforcement: increases behavior.

Positive reinforcement: adding something pleasant.

Shaping: reinforcing successive steps toward a goal behavior.

Extinction: decrease in behavior when reinforcement is removed.

Partial reinforcement: reinforcing behavior sometimes—makes learning more resistant to extinction.

Skinner’s analogy: operant conditioning & natural selection

Operant conditioning = selection by consequences.

Just like natural selection favors traits, operant conditioning "selects" behaviors that are rewarded.

Environment “shapes” behavior like it shapes species

What is shaping (behaviorist context)?

Gradually guiding behavior by reinforcing closer and closer approximations to the desired behavior.

Partial reinforcement and learning

Slower acquisition but greater resistance to extinction.

Explains why gambling is so persistent—wins are infrequent but unpredictable

Skinner’s goal in Verbal Behavior

Tried to explain language using behaviorist principles (e.g., reinforcement).

Not very successful long-term—especially criticized by Chomsky.

Chomsky’s critique of Skinner

Argued that language involves innate structures and rules, not just stimulus-response associations.

Pointed out that children produce novel sentences they’ve never heard before—can’t be explained by reinforcement alone.

Limitations of behaviorism in explaining human psychology

Ignores internal mental states, emotions, cognition, and biology.

Can’t explain complex behaviors like language, problem-solving, or insight learning.

Tolman’s rats and challenges to behaviorism

Rats formed cognitive maps in mazes—suggesting latent learning.

Learning occurred without reinforcement, contradicting strict behaviorist principles.