ELTAD - (Lightbrown and Spada) - How Languages Are Learned

ELTAD reading list

Definition of First Language Acquisition

• The process by which infants acquire their native language(s) naturally.

• Involves understanding and producing words, sentences, and meaning.

• Occurs without formal instruction, driven by exposure and interaction.

Early Milestones in First Language Acquisition

• Birth–12 months: crying, cooing, babbling; recognise caregiver’s voice; first words.

• Around 2 years: 50+ words, two‑word combinations (“Mommy juice”), telegraphic speech.

• Development linked to cognitive growth and social interaction.

Stages of Negation in First Language Acquisition

• Stage 1: “No” at the start (“No cookie”).

• Stage 2: Negative before verb (“Daddy no comb hair”).

• Stage 3: More complex forms (“I can’t do it”).

• Stage 4: Correct auxiliary + negation (“She doesn’t want it”).

Stages of Question Formation in First Language Acquisition

• Stage 1: Single words or short phrases with rising intonation (“Cookie?”).

• Stage 2: “Wh‑” words as chunks (“Whassat?”), then “Where/Who.”

• Later: “Why,” “How,” “When” as grammar develops.

The Behaviourist Perspective on First Language Acquisition

• Language learned through imitation, practice, reinforcement.

• Errors seen as bad habits to be avoided.

• Criticised for not explaining novel utterances children produce.

The Innatist Perspective on First Language Acquisition

• Humans are biologically programmed for language (Chomsky’s LAD).

• Universal Grammar underlies all languages.

• Input triggers innate mechanisms to develop grammar.

The Interactionist Perspective on First Language Acquisition

• Language develops through social interaction and cognitive development.

• Caregiver speech (simplified, repetitive) supports learning.

• Emphasises negotiation of meaning and shared attention.

Role of Caregiver Input in First Language Acquisition

• Child‑directed speech: slower, higher pitch, exaggerated intonation.

• Provides clear models and feedback.

• Encourages turn‑taking and interaction.

Definition of Second Language Learning

• The process of learning a language after the first language (L1) is already acquired.

• Can occur in naturalistic settings (immersion) or formal classroom contexts.

• Involves both similarities to and differences from first language acquisition.

Learner Characteristics in Second Language Learning

• Older learners have greater cognitive maturity and metalinguistic awareness.

• Younger learners may achieve more native‑like pronunciation.

• Motivation, aptitude, and prior language knowledge influence outcomes.

Learning Conditions in Second Language Learning

• Naturalistic settings: rich, varied input; more opportunities for interaction.

• Classroom settings: structured input, explicit instruction, limited exposure.

• Modified input (teacher talk, foreigner talk) supports comprehension.

Approaches to Studying Learner Language

• Contrastive Analysis: predicts errors from L1–L2 differences.

• Error Analysis: examines actual learner errors to understand development.

• Interlanguage: evolving learner system combining L1, L2, and unique forms.

Developmental Sequences in Second Language Learning

• Learners acquire certain grammatical features in predictable orders.

• Examples: stages of negation, question formation, possessive determiners.

• Similar patterns found across learners regardless of L1.

Influence of First Language Transfer

• Positive transfer: L1 structures help L2 learning when similar.

• Negative transfer: L1 differences cause errors in L2.

• Transfer effects vary by structure, context, and learner awareness.

Other Influences on Second Language Learning

• Pragmatic competence: using language appropriately in context.

• Phonological development: accent influenced by age and exposure.

• Vocabulary growth: depends on input quality, quantity, and strategies.

Teacher Implications from Second Language Learning Research

• Expect developmental errors as part of learning.

• Provide rich, comprehensible input and opportunities for output.

• Balance focus on meaning with attention to form.

Definition of Individual Differences in SLA

• Variations among learners that influence second language acquisition (SLA) outcomes.

• Include cognitive, affective, and social factors.

• No single factor guarantees success; factors interact in complex ways.

Age as an Individual Difference in SLA

• Younger learners often achieve more native‑like pronunciation in naturalistic settings.

• Older learners may progress faster initially in grammar and vocabulary in classroom contexts.

• Critical Period Hypothesis suggests a biological window for optimal language learning.

Motivation in SLA

• Integrative motivation: desire to connect with the target language (TL) community.

• Instrumental motivation: learning for practical goals (e.g., job, exam).

• Motivation can change over time and is influenced by learning context.

Personality in SLA

• Traits like extroversion, introversion, risk‑taking, and empathy may affect participation and fluency.

• Extroverts may seek more interaction; introverts may excel in accuracy.

• Research shows mixed results; personality interacts with other factors.

Learning Styles and Cognitive Styles in SLA

• Preferences for processing information: visual, auditory, kinaesthetic, analytic, holistic.

• Matching instruction to styles can support engagement, but flexibility is important.

• Overemphasis on “style matching” is debated in research.

Language Learning Strategies in SLA

• Specific actions learners take to improve language learning (e.g., note‑taking, repetition, inferencing).

• Can be cognitive, metacognitive, or socio‑affective.

• Strategy training can enhance learner autonomy.

Aptitude in SLA

• Inborn ability to learn languages, measured by tests like MLAT.

• Components: phonemic coding ability, grammatical sensitivity, memory capacity.

• High aptitude can aid learning, but motivation and effort are also crucial.

Other Factors in SLA

• Anxiety: can hinder performance if too high, but mild tension may help focus.

• Self‑confidence: linked to willingness to communicate.

• Attitudes toward TL and culture: influence persistence and success.

Teacher Implications from Individual Differences Research

• Recognise and accommodate diverse learner profiles.

• Provide varied activities to engage different strengths.

• Support motivation, confidence, and strategy use.

Behaviourist Perspective on SLA

• Language learning = habit formation through imitation, practice, reinforcement.

• Errors seen as bad habits to be avoided.

• Linked to Audiolingual Method and Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis.

Limitations of the Behaviourist Perspective in SLA

• Many learner errors not predictable from L1–L2 differences.

• L1 influence is more complex than simple habit transfer.

• Behaviourism largely rejected in SLA research.

Innatist Perspective on SLA

• Based on Chomsky’s Universal Grammar (UG) theory.

• Humans have an innate language faculty; input triggers grammar development.

• SLA research debates whether and how UG is available to L2 learners.

Krashen’s Monitor Model (Innatist View)

• Acquisition vs. learning: subconscious vs. conscious knowledge.

• Natural order hypothesis: features acquired in predictable sequences.

• Input hypothesis: acquisition occurs with comprehensible input at i+1.

• Affective filter: stress/anxiety can block acquisition.

Cognitive Perspective on SLA

• Language learning as skill acquisition via information processing.

• Involves automatisation of language knowledge through practice.

• Includes usage‑based learning, competition model, processability theory.

Interactionist Perspective on SLA

• Interaction provides opportunities for negotiation of meaning.

• Comprehensible input + feedback + modified output aid learning.

• Includes Long’s Interaction Hypothesis and Swain’s Output Hypothesis.

Noticing Hypothesis (Schmidt)

• Learners must consciously notice language features in input to acquire them.

• Attention is a key factor in converting input to intake.

Sociocultural Perspective on SLA

• Learning occurs through social interaction and collaborative dialogue.

• Language development mediated by cultural tools and more capable peers.

• Emphasises the role of scaffolding and the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).

Teacher Implications from SLA Theories

• Provide rich, comprehensible input and meaningful interaction.

• Create low‑anxiety environments to lower affective filter.

• Balance focus on meaning with attention to form and feedback.

Definition of Classroom Second Language Learning

• SLA that takes place in a structured, instructional setting.

• Teacher‑led lessons with planned objectives and materials.

• Often limited exposure to the target language (TL) outside class.

Characteristics of Classroom SLA

• Input is often simplified, graded, and sequenced.

• Opportunities for output may be limited compared to naturalistic settings.

• Feedback is more frequent and explicit.

Focus on Form vs. Focus on Forms

• Focus on forms: teaching discrete grammar/vocabulary items in isolation.

• Focus on form: drawing attention to language features within meaningful communication.

• Research supports integrating form into communicative activities.

Corrective Feedback in Classroom SLA

• Explicit correction: directly providing the correct form.

• Recasts: reformulating learner errors without overt correction.

• Elicitation/clarification requests: prompting learner self‑correction.

Interaction in Classroom SLA

• Pair/group work increases opportunities for negotiation of meaning.

• Teacher‑fronted interaction can limit learner talk time.

• Collaborative tasks promote both fluency and accuracy.

Task‑Based and Content‑Based Instruction in Classrooms

• Task‑based: learners complete meaningful tasks using TL.

• Content‑based: TL used to learn subject matter (e.g., CLIL, immersion).

• Both approaches provide rich, contextualised input.

Role of the Teacher in Classroom SLA

• Facilitator of interaction and provider of comprehensible input.

• Balances communicative practice with attention to form.

• Creates a supportive, low‑anxiety environment.

Teacher Implications from Classroom SLA Research

• Provide varied interaction patterns (pair, group, whole class).

• Use feedback strategically to promote noticing and self‑repair.

• Integrate grammar and vocabulary into meaningful communication.

Proposal 1: “Get it Right from the Beginning”

• Structure‑based approaches (e.g., Grammar‑Translation, Audiolingual).

• Emphasis on accuracy, explicit grammar, and error prevention.

• Research: Does not guarantee communicative ability; developmental errors still occur.

Proposal 2: “Just Listen … and Read”

• Comprehension‑based instruction (Krashen’s Input Hypothesis).

• Learners exposed to rich, comprehensible input via listening/reading.

• Research: Sustained input boosts comprehension and vocabulary; best as supplement, not sole method.

Proposal 3: “Let’s Talk”

• Interaction‑focused learning; negotiation of meaning central.

• Pair/group work, information‑gap tasks, role‑plays.

• Research: Interaction promotes fluency and noticing of language forms.

Proposal 4: “Get Two for One”

• Content‑Based Instruction (CBI) / CLIL: learn subject matter through TL.

• Integrates language and content objectives.

• Research: Supports both language growth and subject learning when input is comprehensible.

Proposal 5: “Teach What Is Teachable”

• Based on developmental sequences in SLA.

• Some structures can only be learned when learner is developmentally ready.

• Research: Instruction most effective when timed to readiness.

Proposal 6: “Get it Right in the End”

• Focus on form after meaning‑focused communication.

• Corrective feedback and form‑focused episodes target persistent errors.

• Research: Combining meaning‑focused interaction with timely form‑focus improves accuracy.

Research Approaches in Evaluating Proposals

• Quantitative: large‑scale, experimental/descriptive studies to find general patterns.

• Qualitative: case studies, ethnographies for in‑depth understanding.

• Action research: teacher‑led, classroom‑specific investigations.

Teacher Implications from Chapter 6

• No single proposal works best in all contexts.

• Effective teaching blends meaning‑focused and form‑focused instruction.

• Instruction should be responsive to learner needs, readiness, and context.

Overall Understanding of Language Learning

• SLA is influenced by a complex interplay of cognitive, social, and affective factors.

• No single theory fully explains all aspects of language learning.

• Effective teaching draws on multiple perspectives and research findings.

Role of Input, Interaction, and Output

• Comprehensible input is essential for acquisition.

• Interaction promotes negotiation of meaning and noticing of form.

• Output helps learners test hypotheses and consolidate language knowledge.

Importance of Individual Differences

• Age, aptitude, motivation, personality, and learning strategies all affect outcomes.

• Teachers should accommodate diverse learner profiles.

• Learner differences interact with context and instructional approach.

Classroom Instruction Insights

• Both meaning‑focused and form‑focused instruction are valuable.

• Corrective feedback, when timely and appropriate, supports accuracy.

• Task‑based and content‑based approaches provide authentic contexts for learning.

Revisiting Popular Ideas

• Purely accuracy‑focused or purely input‑only approaches are insufficient.

• Blended approaches that integrate communication and attention to form are most effective.

• Instruction should be responsive to learners’ developmental readiness.

Teacher’s Roles in SLA

• Create rich, engaging, and supportive learning environments.

• Provide varied opportunities for input, interaction, and output.

• Encourage learner autonomy and strategy use.

Final Takeaway from the Book

• SLA is a dynamic, lifelong process shaped by many factors.

• Research offers guidance, but teaching must adapt to specific contexts.

• Reflective, informed practice leads to better learning outcomes.