1/94
Flashcards based on AP Biology review notes covering topics from water properties to DNA technology and evolution.
Name | Mastery | Learn | Test | Matching | Spaced |
---|
No study sessions yet.
List four properties of water.
High heat capacity, universal solvent, high heat of vaporization, cohesion & adhesion, and polar.
How does water aid in homeostasis in an organism?
Water has a high specific heat capacity, so it can help maintain a stable internal temperature.
How many covalent bonds can carbon form?
4
Define dehydration synthesis and give an example.
A chemical reaction in which 2 molecules are joined with the removal of a water molecule; ex. 2 monosaccharides forming a disaccharide.
Define hydrolysis and give an example.
A chemical reaction in which a water molecule is added to break down a molecule into 2 or more smaller molecules; ex. disaccharide to 2 monosaccharides.
What is the main difference between catabolic and anabolic reactions?
Anabolic reactions build complex molecules & require energy input, while catabolic reactions break complex molecules & release energy.
Compare and contrast prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
Both contain ribosomes & cytoplasm and have DNA as genetic material. Eukaryotic cells are complex, contain linear DNA and a nucleus, and undergo mitosis/meiosis. Prokaryotic cells are simple, contain circular DNA, and undergo binary fission.
How do cell size and shape affect the overall rate of nutrient intake and waste elimination?
Cell size & shape impact surface area, which is essential for determining the efficiency of nutrient intake & waste elimination. Greater surface area to volume ratio equals greater efficiency.
What is the general formula and function for a monosaccharide?
CH2O. Monosaccharides function as energy, building blocks for carbs, and metabolic intermediates.
What are polysaccharides and what are their functions?
They are complex carbs formed from many monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds. They function as energy storage, structural support, and are involved in cell recognition.
What are the differences between glycogen, starch, cellulose, and chitin?
Glycogen & Starch are both forms of storage. Cellulose & chitin are structural components. Glycogen & chitin are in animals while cellulose & starch are in plants (can be in fungi too).
What are the structural components of fats, phospholipids, and steroids?
Fats: glycerol & fatty acids. Phospholipids: glycerol, fatty acids, & phosphate group. Steroids: carbon skeleton
What are the major functions of fats, phospholipids, and steroids?
Fats store energy in the form of triglycerides. Phospholipids form cell membranes. Steroids may function as hormones & structural components.
Proteins are polymers of ____ acids joined by ____ bonds.
Amino, peptide
Describe the primary structure of a protein.
Amino acid sequence.
Describe the secondary structure of a protein.
Structures stabilized by hydrogen bonds on peptide backbone.
Describe the tertiary structure of a protein.
3D structure of single polypeptide chain; Stabilized by R groups.
Describe the quaternary structure of a protein.
Multiple polypeptide chains in a multi-subunit protein.
What are the three parts of a nucleotide?
Nitrogenous base, pentose sugar, and phosphate group.
List the purines.
Adenine (A) and Guanine (G)
List the pyrimidines.
Cytosine (C) and Thymine (T)
Define energy.
The capacity to work or cause change.
What is entropy?
The measure of disorder or randomness in a system.
List eight organelles found in the cell and their functions.
Nucleus (control center, contains DNA), mitochondria (generates energy/ATP), ER (location of protein & lipid synthesis), cytoskeleton (structural support & cell movement), peroxisomes (detoxification), golgi apparatus (processes & packages proteins & lipids & lipid metabolism), lysosomes (breaks down cellular waste), ribosomes (protein synthesis).
Describe the Endomembrane System parts and how they produce a protein.
The ER synthesizes proteins & lipids. The golgi apparatus modifies & packages the proteins, and then transports them to the final destination (lysosomes, plasma membrane, or secretion). The lysosomes can digest cellular waste, and vacuoles can store materials.
Define Endosymbiosis and who proposed it?
The theory that some eukaryotic organelles evolved from free-living prokaryotes that were engulfed by a host cell. Proposed by Lynn Margulis.
Describe the glycocalyx and explain its role in cell recognition.
It is a carbohydrate layer on the outer surface of the plasma membrane. It plays a role in cell recognition as it allows cells to identify each other through specific carbohydrate markers.
What are the differences between diffusion and active transport?
Diffusion is a form of passive transport, meaning that it doesn't require energy input, while active transport does require energy/ATP.
Define hypoosmotic.
Lower solute concentration, higher water concentration.
Define hyperosmotic.
Higher solute concentration, lower water concentration.
Define isosmotic.
Equal solute and water concentration.
Describe the features of a cell's signal transduction pathway. Name a specific second messenger.
The signal transduction pathway involves a signal, a receptor, and a response. A specific 2nd messenger is cAMP.
Describe cell communication through direct contact.
Involves cell-cell recognition.
Describe cell communication from a distance through chemical signaling.
Involves chemical signaling, where cells release signaling molecules that travel to target cells.
Glycolysis starts with ____ and produces ____.
Glucose, ATP, NADH, Pyruvate
Krebs cycle starts with ____ and produces ____.
Acetyl CoA, CO2, ATP, NADH, FADH
ETC produces ____.
ATP & water
Where does Glycolysis occur?
Cytoplasm
Where does the Kreb's cycle occur?
Mitochondrial matrix
Where does the Electron transport chain (ETC) occur?
Inner mitochondrial membrane
What are the two major parts of photosynthesis? Where does each part occur?
Light-dependent reactions (thylakoid membrane) and Calvin cycle (stroma).
What enters the Light Dependent Reactions and what is produced?
Water, light & chlorophyll enters; oxygen, ATP, and NADPH are produced.
What enters the Calvin Cycle and what is produced?
CO2, ATP, and NADPH enter; glucose is produced.
List and briefly describe the phases of mitosis.
Prophase: chromosomes condense & are visible. Prometaphase: nuclear envelope breaks down. Metaphase: chromosomes align at metaphase plate. Anaphase: sister chromatids separate & move to opposite poles. Telophase: chromosomes arrive at poles & nuclear envelope reforms.
List and briefly describe the parts of the Cell Cycle.
Interphase: G1, S, G2 (cell growth & DNA replication). Mitosis: separation of chromosomes into sister chromatids. Cytokinesis: cell division.
Describe nondisjunction and give a specific example.
It is the failure of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to properly separate during cell division. An example is people with Down syndrome coming from nondisjunction of chromosome 21.
What is chemiosmosis?
The movement of ions across a semipermeable membrane down a proton gradient to generate ATP.
What is photophosphorylation?
The process of using light energy to generate ATP during photosynthesis.
What is the difference between meiosis I and meiosis II?
Meiosis I separates homologous chromosomes, making 2 haploid cells, while meiosis II separates sister chromatids, making 4 haploid cells.
What is the difference between a linked and unlinked gene?
Linked genes are close together on the same chromosome. Unlinked genes are either far apart on the same chromosome or on 2 different chromosomes.
List four differences between viruses and bacteria.
Viruses are acellular, smaller, require a host to replicate, and contain DNA OR RNA. Bacteria are cellular, larger, replicate independently, and contain DNA AND RNA.
What are the differences between the lytic and lysogenic cycle?
In the lytic cycle, the host is immediately terminated, but in the lysogenic cycle, the virus integrates into the host cell and remains dormant for a while before entering the lytic cycle.
Who are Watson, Crick, and Franklin and what did they do?
They made significant contributions to the discovery of the structure of DNA. Watson & Crick made the first accurate model of a DNA molecule, and Franklin created X-ray diffraction images proving DNA is a double helix.
Describe DNA replication using the enzymes responsible.
Helicase unwinds DNA. Topoisomerase relieves tension of unwinding. Primase synthesizes RNA primers. DNA polymerase adds nucleotides to DNA strand. Ligase joins DNA fragments together.
List the tools and techniques of DNA technology.
Restriction enzymes, DNA sequencing, gel electrophoresis, PCR, and recombinant DNA/Plasmids.
List three applications of DNA technology.
GMOs, identifying genetic diseases, and DNA fingerprinting.
Describe the three major types of mutations.
Point mutations (change 1 base), frameshift mutations (changes whole reading frame), and chromosomal mutations (large-scale change in chromosomal structure or #).
Describe three causes of mutations.
Errors during DNA replication, insertion of transposable elements into genes, and exposure to radiation.
In general, DNA mutations can be ____, ______, or ____.
Harmful, beneficial, or neutral.
Define operon.
Cluster of genes transcribed together as a single mRNA.
Define promoter.
DNA sequence where RNA polymerase binds to initiate transcription.
Define structural gene.
Gene that codes for a protein.
Define repressor.
Protein that inhibits transcription.
Define inducer.
Molecule that stimulates gene expression.
Define activator.
Protein that increases gene transcription.
List three things that lead to genetic variation among offspring (organism level).
Mutations, recombination, and independent random assortment.
Describe complete dominance using red and white flowers.
Red flower x white flower = red flower; red is dominant & masks white.
Describe incomplete dominance using red and white flowers.
Red flower x white flower = pink flower; blend of both phenotypes.
Describe codominance using red and white flowers.
Red flower x white flower = red & white flower; both phenotypes expressed independently.
Explain the difference between sex chromosomes and sex-linked disorders. Give an example of each.
Sex chromosomes determine the sex of an individual (ex. XX female, XY male). Sex-linked disorders are genetic conditions caused by genes located on the sex chromosome (ex. hemophilia).
Give an example of nonnuclear inheritance.
Mitochondrial inheritance is nonnuclear, and passed down through mitochondrial DNA from the mother.
Describe epigenetics.
Changes in gene expression that do not involve changes to the DNA sequence itself.
Explain why the statement "Natural Selection acts on phenotype not genotype" is true.
The phenotypes are what interact with the environment and determine survival & reproduction.
List the five conditions necessary for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.
No mutation, random mating, no gene flow, no natural selection, and large population size.
Write the Hardy-Weinberg formulas and state what each term in the equations stands for.
p + q = 1 (p=frequency of dominant allele, q=frequency of recessive allele); p² + 2pq + q² = 1 (p^2=frequency of homozygous dominant, q^2= frequency of homozygous recessive, 2pq=frequency of heterozygous)
Describe two prezygotic and postzygotic barriers to the ability to interbreed.
Prezygotic: reduced hybrid fertility- hybrids are sterile, reduced hybrid viability - hybrids do not survive. Postzygotic: species breed at different times, behavioral isolation- different mating/courtship rituals
What is allopatric speciation?
Speciation that occurs due to geographic isolation.
What is sympatric speciation?
Speciation that occurs in the same geographic area by occupying different niches.
What are the differences between microevolution and macroevolution?
Microevolution observes changes in allele frequencies in a population over time. Macroevolution observes broad patterns of evolutionary change above the species level.
What is genetic drift?
A random change in allele frequencies in a population due to chance events.
What is gene flow?
The transfer of alleles from one population to another.
What is selection?
The process by which certain traits become more or less common in a population due to differential survival & reproduction.
Give an example of directional selection.
Favors individuals at one extreme end.
Give an example of disruptive selection.
Favors individuals at both extreme ends.
Give an example of stabilizing selection.
Favors intermediate variants.
What are the differences between homologous and analogous structures?
Homologous structures are structures that are similar due to common ancestry. Analogous structures are structures that have similar function but not structure due to not having a common ancestor.
What are the differences between convergent and divergent evolution?
Convergent evolution is evolution of similar features in animals with analogous structures. Divergent evolution is the accumulation of differences between groups that can lead to formation of new species.
Define inherited characteristic.
Characteristics genetically determined & passed on from parents to offspring.
Define acquired characteristics.
Characteristics developed during an organism's lifetime.
Describe antibiotic resistance as it applies to evolution.
Bacteria evolve to develop resistance to antibiotics through natural selection.
List two ways in which viruses benefit living organisms.
Gene transfer and population control.
Explain and give an example of a positive tropism in plants.
Growth towards a stimulus (ex: phototropism-drawn towards light).
Explain and give an example of a negative tropism in plants.
Growth away from a stimulus (ex: gravitropism - grow away from gravity).
Describe transpiration in plants.
The process by which water is carried through plants from roots to small pores on leaves and then evaporates and is released into the atmosphere.
What is photoperiodism?
The physiological reaction of organisms to the length of day or night.