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Learning according to behaviorists
a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience
learning according to cognitive theorists
the process by which organisms make relatively permanent changes in the way they represent the environment because of experience
Classical conditioning
a simple form of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to evoke the response usually evoked by another stimulus by being paired repeatedly with the other stimulus
reflex
a simple unlearned response to a stimulus
stimulus
and environmental condition that elicits a response
unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
a stimulus that elects a response from an organism prior to conditioning
unconditioned response (UCR)
an unlearned response to an unconditioned stimulus
orienting reflex
an unlearned response in which an organism attends to a stimulus
conditioned stimulus (CS)
a previously neutral stimulus that elects a conditioned response because it has been paired repeatedly with a stimulus that already elected that response
conditioned response (CR)
a learned response to a conditioned stimulus
extinction
the process by which stimuli lose their ability to evoke learned responses because the events that had followed the stimuli no longer occur (The learned responses are said to be ____)
spontaneous recovery
the recurrence of an extinguished response as a function of the passage of time
generalization
in conditioning, the tendency for a CR to be evoked by stimuli that are similar to the stimulus to which the response was conditioned
discrimination
in conditioning, the tendency for an organism to distinguish between a CS and similar stimuli that do not forecast a UCS
higher-order conditioning
a classical conditioning procedure in which a previously neutral stimulus comes to elicit the response brought forth by a CS by being paired repeatedly with that conditioned stimulus
biological preparedness
readiness to acquire a certain kind of CR due to the biological makeup of the organism
counter-conditioning
a fear-reduction technique in which pleasant stimuli are associated with fear-evoking stimuli so that the fear evoking stimuli lose their aversive qualities
flooding
a behavioral fear-reduction technique based on principles of classical conditioning; fear-evoking stimuli (CSs) are presented continuously in the absence of actual harm so that fear responses (CRs) are extinguished
systematic desensitization
a behavioral fear-reduction technique in which a hierarchy of fear-evoking stimuli is presented while the person remains relaxed
law of effect
Thorndike’s view that pleasant events stamp in responses, and unpleasant events stamp them out
reinforce
to follow a response with a stimulus that increases the frequency of the response
operant behavior / operant
behavior that operates on, or manipulates, the environment.
operant conditioning
a simple form of learning in which an organism learns to engage in behavior because it is reinforced
positive reinforcer
a reinforcer that when presented increases the frequency of an operant
negative reinforcer
a reinforcer that when removed increases the frequency of an operant
primary reinforcer
an unlearned reinforcer whose effectiveness is based on the biological makeup of the organism and not on learning
secondary reinforcer / conditioned reinforcer
a stimulus that gains reinforcement value through association with established reinforcers
discriminative stimulus
in operant conditioning, a stimulus that indicates that reinforcement is available
continuous reinforcement
a schedule of reinforcement in which every correct response is reinforced
partial reinforcement
one of several reinforcement schedules in which not every correct response is reinforced
fixed-interval schedule
a schedule in which a fixed amount of time must elapse between the previous and subsequent times that reinforcement is available
variable-interval schedule
a schedule in which a variable amount of time must elapse between the previous and subsequent times that reinforcement is available
fixed-ratio schedule
a schedule in which reinforcement is provided after a fixed number of correct responses
variable-ratio schedule
a schedule in which reinforcement is provided after a variable number of correct responses
shaping
a procedure for teaching complex behaviors that at first reinforces approximations of the target behavior
successive approximations
behaviors which are progressively closer to a target behavior
cognitive map
a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment
latent learning
learning the tis hidden or concealed
contingency theory
the view that learning occurs when stimuli provide information about the likelihood of the occurrence of other stimuli
observational learning
the acquisition of knowledge and skills through the observation of others (models) rather than by means of direct experience
model
an organism that engages in a response that is then imitated by another organism
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