Psychology Units 2-6

Unit 2

Unit 2

Unit 2

nervous system

an extensive network of specialized cells that carries information to and from all parts of the body.

Neuroscience

a branch of the life sciences that deals with the structure and function of neurons, nerves, and nervous tissue.

biological psychology

branch of neuroscience that focuses on the biological bases of psychological processes, behavior, and learning.

Neuron

the basic cell that makes up the nervous system and that receives and sends messages within that system.

Dendrites

branchlike structures of a neuron that receive messages from other neurons.

soma

the cell body of the neuron responsible for maintaining the life of the cell.

axon

tubelike structure of neuron that carries the neural message from the cell body to the axon terminals, for communication with other cells.

axon terminals

enlarged ends of axonal branches of the neuron, specialized for communication between cells.

glial cells

cells that provide support for the neurons to grow on and around, deliver nutrients to neurons, produce myelin to coat axons, clean up waste products and dead neurons, influence information processing, and, during prenatal development, influence the generation of new neurons.

myeliin

fatty substances produced by certain glial cells that coat the axons of neurons to insulate, protect, and speed up the neural impulse.

nerves

bundles of axons coated in myelin that travel together through the body.

Diffusion

process of molecules moving from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration.

resting potential

the state of the neuron when not firing a neural impulse.

action potential

the release of the neural impulse consisting of a reversal of the electrical charge within the axon.

synaptic vesticles

saclike structures found inside the synaptic knob containing chemicals.

neurotransmitter

chemical found in the synaptic vesticles that, when released, has an effect on the next cell

Synapse (synaptic gap)

microscopic fluid-filled space between the synaptic knob of one cell and the dendrites or surface of the next cell.

receptor sites

three-dimensional proteins on the surface of the dendrites or certain cells of the muscles and glands, which are shaped to fit only certain neurotransmitters.

excitatory (excited) synapse

synapse at which a neurotransmitter causes the receiving cell to fire.

inhibiitory (inhibiting) synapse

synapse at which a neurotransmitter causes the receiving cell to stop firing

antagonists

Chemical substances that block or reduce a cell's response to the action of other chemicals or neurotransmitters.

agonists

chemical substances that mimic or enhance the effects of a neurotransmitter on the receptor sites of the next cell, increasing or decreasing the activity of that cell.

Reuptake

process by which neurotransmitters are taken back into the synaptic vesicles.

enzymatic degradation

process by which structure of neurotransmitter is altered so it can no longer act on a receptor.

lesioning

insertion of a thin, insulated electrode into the brain through which an electrical current is sent, destroying the brain cells at the tip of the wire.

computed tomography (CT)

brain-imaging method using computer-controlled X-rays of the brain.

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

brain-imaging method using radio waves and magnetic fields of the body to produce detailed images of the brain.

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

a recording of the electrical activity of large groups of cortical neurons just below the skull, most often using scalp electrodes.

posistron emission tomography (PET)

brain-imaging method in which a radioactive sugar is injected into the subject and a computer complies a color-coded image of the activity of the brain.

Fuctional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

MRI-based brain-imaging method that allows for functional examination of brain areas through changes in brain oxygenation

PARTS OF THE BRAIN

STILL CHAPTER 2 JESUS CHRIST

medulla

the first large swelling at the top of the spinal cord, forming the lowest part of the brain, which is responsible for life-sustaining functions such as breathing, swallowing, and heart rate.

Pons

the larger swelling above the medulla that connects the top of the brain to the bottom and that plays a part in sleep, dreaming, left-right body coordination, and arousal.

reticular formation (RF)

an area of neurons running through the middle of the medulla and the pons and slightly beyond that is responsible for general attention, alertness, and arousal.

Cerebellum

part of the lower brain located behind the pons that controls and coordinates involuntary, rapid, fine motor movement.

limbic system

a group of several brain structures located under the cortex and involved in learning, emotion, memory, and motivation.

thalamus

part of the limbic system located in the center of the brain, this structure relays sensory information from the lower part of the brain to the proper areas of the cortex and processes some sensory information before sending it to its proper area.

olfactory bulbs

two bulb-like projections of the brain located just above the sinus cavity and just below the frontal lobes that receive information from the olfactory receptor cells.

Hypothalamus

small structure in the brain located below the thalamus and directly above the pituitary gland, responsible for motivational behavior such as sleep, hunger, thirst, and sex.

Hippocampus

curved structure located within each temporal lobe, responsible for the formation of long-term memories and the storage of memory for location of objects.

Amygdala

brain structure located near the hippocampus, responsible for fear responses and memory of fear.

cortex

outermost covering of the brain consisting of densely packed neurons, responsible for higher thought processes and interpretation of sensory input.

Cerebrum

the upper part of the brain consisting of the two hemispheres and the structures that connect them.

cerebral hemispheres

the two sections of the cortex on the left and right sides of the brain.

split brain patients

people whose corpus callosum has been surgically severed

split brain research

-study of patients with severed corpus callosum

-involves sending messages to only one side of the brain

-demonstrates right and left brain specialization.

corpus callosum

thick band of neurons that connects the right and left cerebral hemispheres.

occipital lobes

section of the brain located at the rear and bottom of each cerebral hemisphere containing the visual centers of the brain.

parietal lobes

sections of the brain located at the top and back of each cerebral hemisphere containing the centers for touch, taste, temperature sensations, and body position.

somasensory cortex

area of cortex at the front of the parietal lobes responsible for processing information from the skin and internal body receptors for touch, temperature, and body position.

temporal lobes

areas of the cortex located just behind the temples containing the neurons responsible for the sense of hearing and meaningful speech.

frontal lobes

areas of the brain located in the front and top, responsible for higher mental processes and decision making as well as the production of fluent speech.

motor cortex

rear section of the frontal lobe, responsible for sending motor commands to the muscles of the somatic nervous system.

mirror neurons

neurons that fire when an animal or person performs an action and also when an animal or person observes that same action being performed by another.

association areas

areas within each lobe of the cortex responsible for the coordination and interpretation of information, as well as higher mental processing.

Broca's area

Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

Wernicke's area

controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe.

Broca's aphasia

condition resulting from damage to Broca's area, causing the affected person to be unable to speak fluently, to mispronounce words, and to speak haltingly.

Wernicke's aphasia

condition resulting from damage to Wernicke's area, causing the affected person to be unable to understand or produce meaningful language.

spatial neglect

condition produced by damage to the association areas of the right hemisphere resulting in an inability to recognize objects or body parts in the left visual field.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

part of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord.

spinal chord

a long bundle of neurons that carries messages between the body and the brain and is responsible for very fast, lifesaving reflexes.

afferent (sensory) neuron

a neuron that carries information from the senses to the central nervous system.

efferent (motor) neuron

a neuron that carries messages from the central nervous system to the muscles of the body.

interneuron

a neuron found in the center of the spinal cord that receives information from the afferent neurons and sends commands to the muscles through the efferent neurons. Interneurons also make up the bulk of the neurons in the brain.

reflex arc

the connection of the afferent neurons to the interneurons to the efferent neurons, resulting in a reflex action.

Neuroplasticity

the ability within the brain to constantly change both the structure and function of many cells in response to experience or trauma.

neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons; occurs primarily during prenatal development but may also occur at lesser levels in some brain areas during adulthood.

stem cells

special cells found in all the tissues of the body that are capable of becoming other cell types when those cells need to be replaced due to damage or wear and tear.

Epigenetics

the interaction between genes and environmental factors that influence gene activity; environmental factors include diet, life experiences, and physical surroundings.

NERVOUS SYSTEMS

WHY STILL CHAPTER 2 OML

somatic nervous system

division of the PNS consisting of nerves that carry information from the senses to the CNS and from the CNS to the voluntary muscles of the body.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

all nerves and neurons that are not contained in the brain and spinal cord but that run through the body itself.

autonomic nervous system (ANS)

division of the PNS consisting of nerves that control all of the involuntary muscles, organs, and glands.

sensory pathways of CNS

nerves coming from the sensory organs to the CNS consisting of afferent neurons.

motor pathways of CNS

nerves coming from CNS to the voluntary muscles, consisting of different neurons.

sympathetic division (fight-or-flight system)

also called the sympathetic nervous system (SNS), part of the ANS that is responsible for reacting to stressful events and bodily arousal.

parasympathetic nervous system (eat-drink-and-rest-system)

also called the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS), part of the ANS that restores the body to normal functioning after arousal and is responsible for the day-to-day functioning of the organs and glands.

GLANDS AND THINGS RELEASED BY THEM

you already know what damn chapter this is

hormones

chemicals released into the bloodstream by endocrine glands.

Endoctrine glands

glands that secrete chemicals called hormones directly into the bloodstream.

pituitary gland

gland located in the brain that secretes human growth hormone and influences all other hormone-secreting glands (also known as the master gland).

Oxytocin

hormone released by the posterior pituitary gland that is involved in reproductive and parental behaviors.

pineal gland

endocrine gland located near the base of the cerebrum; secretes melatonin.

thyroid gland

endocrine gland found in the neck; regulates metabolism.

Pancreas

endocrine gland; controls the levels of sugar in the blood.

Gonads

sex glands; secrete hormones that regulate sexual development and behavior as well as reproduction.

Gonads: Testes

have interstitial cells; produce testosterone when stimulated by Luteinizing Hormone from the Anterior pituitary; LH is also known as "insterstitial cell stimulating hormone (ICSH);.

Gonads: Ovaries

produce ova and the hormones estrogen and progesterone; controlled by FSH and LH (anterior pituitary); FSH stimulates ovarian follicles to develop; as follicle and ovum grow, increasing amounts of estrogen are released from the follicular cells.

adrenal glands

endocrine glands located on top of each kidney that secrete over 30 different hormones to deal with stress, regulate salt intake, and provide a secondary source of sex hormones affecting the sexual changes that occur during adolescence.

Phineas Gage

railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury that dramatically changed his personality and behavior; case played a role in the development of the understanding of the localization of brain function.

prefrontal cortex

the frontmost portion of the frontal lobes, especially prominent in humans; important for attention, working memory, decision making, appropriate social behavior, and personality.

obitofrontal cortex

a part of the prefrontal cortex located right behind the eyes that participates in impulse control.

limbic cortex

collection of structures of the cerebral cortex that are involved in emotion, memory, and behavior and are part of the larger limbic system.

UNIT 3

FINALLY SENSATION AND PERCEPTION

Sensation

the process that occurs when special receptors in the sense organs are activated, allowing various forms of outside stimuli to become neural signals in the brain.

Tansduction

the process of converting outside stimuli, such as light, into neutral activity.

Synesthesia

condition in which the signals from the various sensory organs are processed differently, resulting in the sense information being interpreted as more than one sensation.

just noticeable difference (JND or the difference threshold)

the smallest difference between two stimuli that is detectable 50 percent of the time.