Altered States of Consciousness- continue

An altered state is…

Changing someone’s state of awareness

Ways to alter our conscious mind

• Hypnosis

• Meditation

• Drugs

• Dreaming

• Sleep

biological sleep

•  repair, restore immune system, rest and digest, grow, re-energize, conserve energy

Cognitive sleep

learning, memory

evolutionary sleep

• survival, protection from predators

what neurotransmitter is released during sleep

melatonin

Sleep deprivation results in…

• Fatigue and irritability

• Weight gain

• Decreased mood and energy levels

• Lower attention levels

• Dangerous driving

• Higher risk of depression

NREM

• Non Rapid Eye Movement

• Quiet sleep

• 75% of sleep time

REM

• Rapid Eye Movement

• Active Sleep

• 25% of sleep time

4 stages of sleep

1. Falling asleep

2. Light non-REM sleep

3. Deep non-REM sleep

4. REM sleep

Stage 1 NREM

• Muscles relax

• Pulse slows

• Temperature drops

• Still awake and aware

• Alpha waves are seen on an EEG

  • Associated with relaxation

• Body twitches

• Eyes roll

Stage 2 NREM

• Eyes roll slowly 

• Brain waves shift to high- amplitude to low- frequency (sleep spindles)

• End of stage 2:

  • Bridges the gap between “drifting or dozing off” to “deep sleep”

Stage 3 NREM

• Large delta waves sweep through the brain 

• “Deepest sleep”

• Hard to awaken

• If awakened, you may feel disorientated

• Sleepwalking, talking & bedwetting occur, no memory of any of it 

• Important for physical & psychological health. 

Motivation

• Internal state that activates behavior and directs our behavior towards reaching a goal

• Stimulus → Cause

Intrinsic (internal)

•  motivated by yourself

Extrinsic (external)

• motivated by your environment

Drive- reduction theory

Motivation starts with biological and/or psychological needs (essential for survival)

• Accomplished by our drive to meet those needs

• Stops when our body reaches homeostasis

  • The body returns to its normal state after our needs are satisfied

• Supported by the biological perspective

Incentive Theory

Motivation is based on incentives (rewards or punishments)

• Similar to Operant Conditioning: want to achieve more incentives while avoiding punishments

• Supported by the behavioral perspective

Arousal theory

We are motivated to seek an optimum level of arousal

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

We are motivated by needs, and all needs are not created equal. We are driven to satisfy the lower-level needs first.

• Humanistic approach

approach- approach conflict

• 2 desirable choices

  • Ex: You get accepted into two great colleges.

    • College A has a strong academic program.

    • College B is closer to home and cheaper.

    Both are good, so the conflict is deciding which good option to choose.

avoidance- avoidance

• 2 unfavorable choices

  • Ex: You didn’t do your homework.

    • Option 1: Get in trouble with your teacher.

    • Option 2: Stay up very late doing the work.

    Both choices are bad, so you feel stuck trying to decide.

aproach-avoidance

• less unfavorable choice to avoid a worse situation later

  • ex: You are offered a high-paying job.

    Good: You earn a lot of money.

    Bad: You have to move far away from your family.

Conscious

• 25% is everything we are aware of

  • A small portion above the surface

  • ex: You are conscious when you wake up and know you are in your room.

Preconscious

•  Knowledge and memories we have but don’t think about

  • Ex. address

Non conscious

• Behaviors and thoughts we process automatically w/o conscious effort

  • Ex: Your heart beating, breathing, or digesting food

  • Automatically catching yourself when you trip

Unconscious

•  desires, conflicts, or memories that our conscious mind can’t deal with; you are unaware of these, but they still influence behavior

  • Deep, submerged part

  • Ex: Hidden fears or memories that affect how you act without you realizing it.

3 parts of emotions

• Physiological arousal (body): heart rate, sweating, breathing

• Cognitive/affective (mind): what you think and feel

• Behavioral: facial expressions, gestures, actions

Evolutionary theory of emotions

Emotions exist because they help us survive.

• Fear helps us avoid danger.

• Anger helps us protect ourselves.

• We can quickly recognize emotions in others.

Example: You jump away from a snake because fear evolved to keep you safe.

James- Lange theory

Body → Emotion
You feel emotion because of your body’s reaction.

Example:
You see a bear → your heart races → you think, “My heart is pounding, I must be scared.”

Facial Feedback hypothesis

Your facial expression can create emotion.

Example:
Smiling can actually make you feel happier.

Cannon- bard theory

Body and emotion happen at the same time.

Example:
You see a bear → your heart races and you feel fear at the same time.

LeDoux’s dual pathway theory

says emotions travel on two paths in the brain:

• Low road (fast): automatic, no thinking

• High road (slow): thoughtful and logical

Example:
You are walking and see something long on the ground.

• Low road: Your brain instantly thinks “snake!” and you jump back in fear.

• High road: A second later, your thinking brain realizes it’s just a rope. You calm down.

Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory

says emotion is based on two things:

1. Physical arousal (what your body feels)

2. Cognitive label (how you interpret the situation)

You feel an emotion only after your body reacts and you decide what that reaction means.

Example:
Your heart is racing and your palms are sweaty.

• At a concert, you label it as excitement, so you feel happy.

• In a dark alley, you label it as danger, so you feel fear.

Lazarus’s cognitive appraisal theory

We think (consciously or unconsciously) before we feel.

Example:
You see a dog.

• You think “It’s friendly” → calm.

• You think “It might bite” → fear.

Universal emotions (Ekman)

Some emotions are recognized worldwide: happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, disgust.
Display rules mean cultures show emotions differently.

Example:
People everywhere recognize a smile, but some cultures hide sadness in public.

Broaden and build theory

• Positive emotions help us grow and explore.

• Negative emotions help us focus on danger.

Example:
Feeling curious on a hike makes you explore.
Feeling fear makes you freeze when you hear a noise.

SAM system (fast- acute stress)

• Uses the sympathetic nervous system

• Adrenal glands release adrenaline (epinephrine) and norepinephrine

• Prepares your body to fight or flee

• After the threat ends, the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) calms you and returns you to balance (homeostasis)

Example:
A car suddenly swerves toward you. Your heart races, you jump back—this is the SAM system.

HPA system (slow- chronic stress)

• Used for long-term stress

• Hypothalamus → Pituitary → Adrenal glands → release cortisol

• Cortisol helps you cope over time

• Too much cortisol can weaken the immune system

Example:
Weeks of school pressure cause constant tiredness and worry—this is the HPA system at work.

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)- Alarm

• Immediate fight-or-flight response

• Highest stress hormones
  Example: First day of a big exam—heart racing.

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)- Resistance

• Body tries to adapt

• Stress hormones stay elevated
  Example: Studying daily and pushing through.

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)- Exhaustion

• Resources run out

• Burnout, illness, fatigue
  Example: After weeks of stress, you feel drained and sick.

Distress

Negative stress

Ex: Failing a test, family conflict, anxiety.

Eustress

Positive, motivating stress

Example: Nervous excitement before a game or performance.

Lazarus’s Appraisal Theory of Stress

Stress depends on how you think about a situation.

1. Primary appraisal: “Is this a threat?”

2. Secondary appraisal: “How can I handle it?”

Problem-focused coping: Try to fix the problem.

Example:
You have a big test.

• Primary: “This could hurt my grade.”

• Secondary: “I’ll make a study plan.”

• Coping: You study and ask for help.