Psychology Unit Terms + Research Methods etc.

Biological, Cognitive, Sociocultural

Localization of brain function

Specific parts of the brain are responsible for specific behaviors or cognitive processes

MRI scans

Use of magnetic field and radiowaves for brain imaging that shows image of brain structure

Neurotransmission

The process of transmitting signals between neurons, affecting behaviour

Acetylcholine

A neurotranmitter that affects memory

Dendrites

Branced extensions of a neuron that recieve input

Cell body

Where messages travel in neurotranmission once entering from dendrites

Axon terminal

In neurotranmission, the message is carried here all the way from cell body, from where it is released

Synapse

This space is where the messages are delivered from the end of the axon

Agonists

Something that all neurotransmitters already are, for receptor sites

Antagonists

Drugs that block receptor sites, not allowing neurotransmitters to do it’s job

Excitatory neurotransmitters

Increase the likelihood of a neuron firing

Inhibitory neurotransmitters

Decrease the likelihood of a neuron firing

Neuroplasticity

The ability of the brain to rearrange connection between neurons in response to learning or stimulation

Dendritic branching

Dendrites of neurons growing in numbers and connecting with each other

Synaptic plasticity

Adaptive changes like strengthening or weakening in synaptic connections

Hormones

Chemical substances that act as chemcial messengers, changing behaviour

Endocrine system

A network of glands and organs in the body

Cortisol

The stress hormone

Pheromones

Chemical substances that are released by an animal into the environment, affecting behaviour of others. Not proven to exist in humans.

Primer pheromones

Cause slow, long-term physiological changes like hormonal effects

Signaling pheromones

Cause rapid behavioural effects such as mating

Gene

A sequence of DNA that has an effect on behvaiour through gene expression

MZ twins

identical twins

dizygotic twins

DZ twins

Twin study

Use of MZ and DZ twins to compare their behaviour

Neural pruning

When we lose synaptic connection in a neural network because we do not use them

Evolutionary psychology

Explanation of advantageous genes being passed down over generations through natural selection. Explains how some behaviours are a result of development of our species over time.

Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)

A group of genes that play an important role in our immune system. The more diverse the MHC of parents, the stronger immune system of offspring. It can be expressed through smell.

Epigenetics

Refers to how genes must be expressed for a behaviour to occur

Gene-environment interaction

Certain environmental factors may be needed for a gene to express

Risks of genetic research

Information about people’s genetic inheritance being misused and interfering with their lives, causing harm

Consent forms

Necessary for participants to have a clear understanding of the study they are taking part in

Anonymizing samples

When researchers cannot link samples or information to particular people

Schema Theory

Mental frameworks that organise our learning and experiences into different categories

Multi-store memory model

An memory model from the 60s that seems outdated and simplistic today

Sensory memory

Short-term memory

Long-term memory

Stores of mutli-store memory model, entering with attention and rehersal

Serial Position Effect

We tend to remember words at the beginning (primacy effect) and the end (recency effect)

Primary effect

Remembering words at the beginning better due to Serial Position Effect

Recency effect

Remembering words at the end better due to Serial Position Effect

Working memory model

Memory model that suggests that short term memory consists of a number of stores and explains how we hold and use information in our minds.

Central Executive- controls attention

Phonological Loop- sounds and language

Visuospatial Sketchpad- visual info

Episodic buffer- links to long-term memory

The 4 parts of working memory model

Cognitive load

The amount of information that working memory can hold at a time

Heuristic

A mental shortcut in System 1 thinking that allows people to solve problems quickly

Retrieval

The ability to access information from your memory when you need it

Flashbulb memory

Memories created as a result of intense emotions and are really vivid- however irrelevant info can be retained

Reconstructive memory

The theory that in memory recall, we rebuild events that had happened in the past

Dual Process Model

Suggests that we have two models of thinking: System 1 and System 2

System 1 thinking

An automatic and intuitive way of thinking, often using heuristics- mental shortcuts where we focus on one aspect of a problem

System 2 thinking

Conscious and rational way of thinking that requires more effort. We consider all aspects of a problem

Anchoring bias

As a result of system 1 thinking, we rely only on the first piece of information given to us

Bidirectional ambiguity

A problem with correlational research where we don’t know whether variable A causes a change in variable B or vice versa

Reductionist approach

Analysing a complex behaviour by studying the most basic mechanisms

Retrospective research

A study of an individual after an important change (Like HM)

Internal validity

Accuracy within the study- the extent to which IV causes the change in DV

External validity

How far the results can be applied outside of study

Temporal validity

Are the results still relevant today? (change in social norms etc.)

Population validity

Can the results be generalised to other ages, cultures, genders etc.?

Natural (quasi) experiments

Involve a naturally occuring IV, not manipulated by the researcher

Participant Bias

When people adjust their responses to what they think is the appropriate answer

Independent Samples Design

Different participants used in each condition

Participant variability

Something to consider in samples- Avoid overrepresentation of participant traits that can be biased

Field experiment

Takes place in a natural environment but researchers still manipulate variables

Demand Characteristics

Cues used by participants to work out what the experiment is about. So articipants act differently because they know they are in an experiment

Repeated measures design

Same subjects participate in all conditions

Reliability

If a study can be replicated

Credibility

Degree to which results can be trusted to reflect reality

Conformity

Changing behaviour to fit a social norm

Acculturation

When someone comes into contact with another culture and begins to adapt the norms. 4 different strategies: Assimilation, Integration, Seperation, Marganalisation

Enculturation

Adapting and internalising the schemas of your culture

Acculturative stress

Stress caused by being ethnic minorities in the process of adaption to a new culture. Also known as culture shock.

Assimilation

Abandoning old culture to adopt cultural behaviors of new culture

Integration

Interest in adopting new behaviors while maintaining old culture

Seperation

Maintain old culture, minimize contact with new culture

Marganalisation

Not maintaining old culture but also not adopting new culture

Cultural dimensions

The trends of behavior in a given culture that reflect the values of that culture.

Individualism vs collectivism

The degree to which people are integrated into groups. Valuing independence vs communities

Social Identity Theory

Theory of intergroup conflict, and explains why conflict and discrimination occur

Social categorization

People seperating themselves into different groups based on certain characteristics

Social comparison

Dividing in-group (us) and out-group members (them).

Stereotypes

Generalizations that we make that are only somewhat based on reality.

Confirmation bias

Tendency to interpret information as confirmation of our already existing beliefs

illusory correlation

A type of confirmation bias- we see a relationship between two variables when there is none as a false association.

Stereotype threat

When one is exposed to judgment or treated stereotypically. Can cause harm and undermine performance

Social Cognitive Theory

Argues that we learn from observing models, and our environment

Modeling

The process of learning a behaviour without direct experience. Leads to imitation if it results in a good outcome for the model.

Paying attention, Remember behaviour, Have motivation, Have the ability

conditions necessary for modeling to happen

confounding variable

variables that can lead to the misinterpretation of study results

ecological fallacy

assumptions made about culture without actually measuring it

Interviewer effect

characteristic of an interviewer may cause bias

gatekeepers

People in the process of enculturation who shape our identity (parents, teachers etc.)

misinformation effect

the tendency for the information you learned after an event to interfere with your original memory of what happened

True experiment

an experiment conducted to prove or disprove a cause-and-effect relationship between two variables

scopolamine

Acetylcholine inhibitor

distributive processing

several parts of the brain have to work together for a cognitive process- like memory formation

articulatory suppression task

speech task in landry and bartling