Studied by 229 people
Attribution Theory
explains how we understand the attributes of human behavior
Attributions
the action of regarding something as caused by a person/thing
Dispositional attributions
Explaining human behavior as who the individual is / their personality traits
Situational attributions
Explaining human behavior by the context / what is happening
Fundamental attribution error
tendency to overestimate dispositional trains and underestimate situational traits
Self-serving bias
how we explain our behavior depending on whether the outcome of our behavior is positive or negative
positive → dispositional
negative → situational
Explanatory style
how one explains good/bad events in life (optimistic or pessimistic)
Locus of control
belief of how much control one has over their life (internal or external)
Self-fulfilling prophecy
occurs when a person's expectations or beliefs influence their actions, which in turn make those expectations come true
Social comparison
When someone compares themselves to someone better (upward) or worse (downward) than them
Mere exposure
proximity breeds liking
Cognitive dissonance
when behavior/actions don’t match beliefs/values
Cognitive dissonance theory
people will change either their actions or beliefs to relieve the tension
Confirmation bias
tendency to look for evidence that supports one’s pre-existing beliefs
Belief perseverance
tendency to cling onto our beliefs in face of contrary evidence
Prejudice
unjustifiable and usually negative attitude (cognitive) toward a group; stems from stereotypes and a predisposition to discriminate
Discrimination
to behave in negative and unjustifiable ways toward members of a group, subtle or blatant
Stereotype
generalized beliefs about a group of people, often overgeneralized, misperceived, or exaggerated
Ingroup vs outgroup bias
pattern of favoring members of one's in-group over out-group members
Us vs them
Ethnocentrism
tendency to look at the world primarily from the perspective of one's own culture
Just-world phenomenon
tendency to believe that people get what they deserve
Social norms
shared standards of acceptable behavior by groups
Normative social influence
conforming to avoid rejection or gain social approval
Informational social influence
conforming to be accurate (accepting other’s opinions about reality)
Persuasion
process by which a person's attitudes or behavior are influenced by communications from other people
Elaboration likelihood model
how attitudes are formed and changed through different routes of persuasion
central route
peripheral route
Central route persuasion
persuasion using facts, figures, and statistics about the topic (elaboration likelihood model)
Peripheral route persuasion
persuasion using attractiveness, not related to the topic (elaboration likelihood model)
Foot-in-the-door technique
asking for a small favor first, in order to ease into a bigger favor
Door-in-the-face technique
asking for a too-big favor, in order for the subsequent, smaller favor to be more agreeable
Conformity
adjusting behavior toward group standard
Solomon Asch: Lines experiment
Solomon Asch
Conformity experiment
Informational social influence
Normative social influence
Obedience
compliance with an order, request, or law; submission to another’s authority
Stanley Milgram: Shock the learner experiment
Stanley Milgram
Shock the Learner experiment: Obedience
2/3 participants shocked the highest voltage
People are more likely to do harmful and evil things when they are given orders and believe they will not be responsible for their actions
… and there are no examples of defiance
Group polarization
one’s beliefs become more extreme when surrounded by like-minded group
Group think
the desire for social harmony causes group members to not speak out in support of a better solution/decision
Diffusion of responsibility / bystander effect
in social situations, people are less likely to take action because other people are not taking action
Social exchange theory
our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs
Reciprocity norm
an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them
Social facilitation
improved ability in group setting
Social loafing
slacking or putting less effort in group setting, due to reliance on the majority
Deindividuation
losing self-awareness and self-restraint due to emotional arousal and anonymity
Social Trap
a situation in which actions are taken because of short-term benefits that lead to long-term consequences
Prisoner's dilemma
a situation where two parties, separated and unable to communicate, must each choose between cooperating with the other or not
> shows how, by making individual sacrifices, it benefits the community / the greater good
(Example of social trap)
Commoner's dilemma
in which individuals in a group each make decisions out of self-interest, eventually causing unintended harm to the entire group
(Example of social trap)
Superordinate goals
Goals that can only be achieved by two opposing parties working together
Muzafer Sherif: Robber's cave experiment w/ boys at camp
Prosocial behavior
positive behavior that benefits others
examples: helping, sharing, donating, cooperating, volunteering, obeying the rules, and conforming
Antisocial behavior
problematic and disruptive aggressive and rule-breaking behaviors
examples: hostility towards others, disregard for rules, impulsive behavior, manipulating others, feelings of superiority, irresponsibility
Social responsibility norm
an expectation that people will help those dependent upon them or those who need assistance, even if it may not offer any reward
examples: young, sick, elderly, disabled, poor
Psychodynamic theory
Personality is determined by unconscious urges and anxiety driven defense mechanisms, developed in childhood
Relating to relationship with primary caregiver in the first 5 years of life
Structures: Id, ego, and superego
Assessments: Projective tests (Rorschach inkblot, Thematic Apperception test)
Founded by Sigmund Freud
Projective tests
Ambiguous stimuli used by psychodynamic therapists to assess
Rorschach Inkblot: subjects' perceptions of inkblots are recorded and then analyzed using psychological interpretation
Thematic Apperception test: involves having people explain what is happening in ambiguous scenes.
Psychodynamic theory structures
id: pleasure (unconscious)
gets basic needs met
ego: mediator/reality
uses reasoning to make decisions
superego: judgment/conscience/morality
morals of society
Sigmund Freud
founder of psychoanalytic theory:
had an emphasis on sexual and aggressive impulses
Neo-Freudians
Alfred Adler - birth order, inferiority complex
Karen Horney - feminist perspective, desires for love/security
Carl Jung - collective unconscious, archetypes, spiritual concerns, shared generational inherited experiences
Ego defense mechanisms
Unconsciously used to protect ego from threats
> denial, displacement, projection, rationalization, reaction formation, regression, repression, sublimation
Denial
refusing to believe a painful reality
Displacement
shifting tension to a less threatening target; act of lashing out to undeserving person
Projection
attributing unacceptable impulses onto someone else; saying someone else feels a way while denying it in ourselves
Rationalization
giving a logical reason to justify unacceptable behavior
Reaction formation
unacceptable impulses are replaced with their exact opposites
ex: giving lots of attention to an unwanted child
Regression
resorting to an earlier stage of development
Repression
pushing unwanted memories into the unconcious
Sublimation
aggressive drives are channeled into productive and socially acceptable behaviors
ex: sports or art
Humanistic theory
personality is focused on our growth, potential, and free will
Abraham Maslow + Carl Rogers
Abraham Maslow
wants us to ask ourselves how we grow to reach our full potential, to live a meaningful life (humanism - self-actualizing tendency)
Self-actualizing tendency
the concept regarding the process of how we grow to reach our full potential, to live a meaningful life (humanism - Abraham Maslow)
Carl Rogers
wants us to live up to our ideal self and understand we are basically good (humanism - unconditional positive regard)
Unconditional positive regard
involves showing complete support and acceptance of a person
Reciprocal determinism (Social-cultural)
personality is an interaction of our behaviors, cognitions, and environment interact
Self-concept
thoughts and feelings that answer: "Who am I?”
Self-efficacy
one's feelings of competency and effectiveness
Trait theories
People have certain basic traits, and it is the strength and intensity of those traits that account for personality differences
Big Five: OCEAN
Assessed by personality inventories / factor analysis
Personality inventory / fact analysis
Self-assessment method, often a standardized questionnaire, that reveals insights into an individual's character
Big Five theory
OCEAN: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism
Openness to experience
Cautious and guarded - receptive to new ideas and experiences
Conscientiousness
Easy-going, disorderly - responsible, careful, moral
Extraversion
Low energy in crowds, loner - talkative, outgoing
Agreeableness
Selfish, lack of empathy - helpful, cooperative
Neuroticism
Poor self-regulation (anxiety, jealousy, worry) - mental stability
Individualism
giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes
Collectivism
giving priority to the goals of one's group (often one's extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly
Biological perspective
Understands human nature in a scientific or biological way
Behavioral perspective
Understands human nature by what is observable behavior and learning
Cognitive perspective
Understands human nature by how one thinks and how one processes information
Psychodynamic perspective
Understands human nature by unconscious thought and unresolved conflicts from early childhood
Evolutionary perspective
Understands human nature by how adaptation and survival traits are passed on
Social-cultural perspective
Understands human nature by one's culture and the groups they belong to
Motivation
a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior
can be intrinsic or extrinsic
Intrinsic motivation
the drive to do something for its own sake and because of inherent satisfaction
Extrinsic motivation
the drive to do for an external reward or pressure
Homeostasis
a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state
→ connected to drive reduction motivation theory
Instinct theory
source of motivations are based on genetic predispositions
Drive-reduction theory
when a physiological (physical) need increases, so does the psychological drive to reduce it
→ connected to homeostasis
Optimal arousal theory / Yerkes-Dodson law
need to maintain an optimal level of arousal motivates behaviors that meet no physiological need
> principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases
Self-determination theory
Based on intrinsic or extrinsic motivation
Incentive theory
behaviors are motivated by the desire to attain rewards and avoid punishments
Lewin’s motivational conflicts theory
Three types of psychological conflicts:
Approach-approach: in which two attractive but incompatible goals pull us
Avoidance-avoidance: in which two undesirable alternatives must be chosen
Approach-avoidance: a situation involving a single goal or option that has both desirable and undesirable aspects
Facial feedback hypothesis
tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness
Primary/universal emotions
includes joy, anger, interest, disgust, surprise, and sadness
> considered primary because there is a basic understanding of facial expressions across different cultures
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