Unit 1 Research Methods/Ethics/Stats

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hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have forseen it (I knew it all along)

Theory

system of interrelated ideas used to explain a set of observations; must be testable

Hypothesis

tentative theory that has not been tested

Operational definition

A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study

Replication

Repeating the essence of a research study with different participants in different situations

Case Study

One individual or group is studied in depth; researches may overinflate importance

Naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate the situation

Survey

self reported, attitudes, opinions or behaviors; Cons: low response rate, people lie wording effects

Sampling bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

Correlation

observe relationships without manipulation; not causation; can’t generate conclusions

Correlation coefficient

statistical index of the relationship between two variables (-1.0 to +1.0)

illusory correlation

the perception of a relationship where none exists

experiment

investigator manipulates one or more independent variables to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process; only research method that isolates cause and effect

experimental group

group exposed to the treatment

control group

group not exposed to the treatment

double-blind procedure

both research participants and research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo

placebo effect

participants experience improvements or changes in their condition simply because they believe they are receiving treatment, even if the treatment is inactive; the placebo is the substance with no active therapeutic effect

confounding variable

outside factor that affects both the independent and dependent variables, potentially skewing the results; random sampling limits this (if studying the impact of exercise on weight loss, ____ like diet could influence weight changes, making it unclear whether the effects are due to exercise or diet)

Inferential statistics

numerical data that allow one to generalize—to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

Informed consent

an ethical principle that participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

Negative vs Positive correlation

two sets of scores relate inversely; as one increases, the other increases

Scatterplot

the amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation)

Normal curve

68-95-99.7 rule; #s close to mean=small SD, #s far from mean=large SD; mean>median (skewed right), mean<median (skewed left)

Descriptive statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups; summarizes data like central tendency and measures of variation

Types of Descriptive Research

describes what is currently happening to see if an experiment is needed—case study, survey, naturalistic observation

Hawthorne Effect

merely selecting individuals to participate can impact their behavior and performance alone (I’m gonna watch you eat—watches em eat—person eating be like uhhh)

Longitudinal Studies

Pros: establish correct sequence of events, identify change over time, helps establish cause and effect; Cons: more expensive, time commitment, subjects may exit study

Extraneous variable

Influence dependent variable

Stratified sampling

process that allows a researcher to ensure that sample represents the population to some criteria

Sigmund Freud (Psychoanalysis)

-believed unconscious forces direct behavior/mental processes

-problems arise from unresolved conflict (bad past experience) in the unconscious mind

-used free association/dream analysis to explore the unconscious

John B. Watson (Behaviorism)

proposed abandoning the study of consciousness altogether, studying only observable behavior (environment rather instead of inner experiences)

B.F. Skinner

organisms repeat responses that lead to positive outcomes, tend not to repeat responses that lead to neutral/negative outcomes

Applied Research

Solve practical problems

Basic Research

Explores questions that are of interest in psychology, but may not generate immediate, real-world solutions.

Institution Review Board (IRB) asks 2 questions

Should this study be done at all? (risks vs benefits) What is adequate informed consent?

Reliable

research can be replicated and is consistent

Valid

research measures what the researcher set out to accurate

Psychodynamic

unconscious mind and childhood conflicts

Levels of Analysis: Psychological

learned fears, emotion cognition, perception

Levels of Analysis: Social-Cultural

presence of others, cultural societal and familial expectations, peer/group influence

Biological Approach

focuses on how our brain, genetics, and body chemistry influence our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

Cognitive Approach

thoughts significantly influence feelings and behaviors; believes memory, language, thought and attention are all worth examining 

Evolutionary Psychology

seeks to identify which human psychological traits are evolved adaptations; mating strategies

Humanism

emphasizes freedom and potential for personal growth; self-actualization

Human Research

1. No Coercion: Participants must be aware of their involvement and give informed consent. Any deception should be minimal and not affect consent. Participation must be voluntary

2. Informed Consent: the research participants believe they are consenting to must closely match the actual study to ensure meaningful informed consent. Researchers must also be cautious about any potential trauma caused by deception

3. Anonymity or Confidentiality

4. Risk: permissible to experience temporary discomfort or stress

5. Debriefing

Ethical Animal research

1. Clear scientific purpose

2. Answer specific, important scientific questions

3. Animals chosen must be best-suited

4. Humane care for animals

5. Acquire subjects legally

6. Least amount of suffering feasible

Statistically significant

Finding is not due to chance; reliable