Major Theories & Theorists - NCE

THEORISTS

Behavorists are...(list all)

John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov, Joseph Wolpe & B.F Skinner

Erik Erikson's 8 Psychosocial Stages

States that growth is orderly, universal, & systematic.

1) Trust vs. Mistrust (birth to 1.5)

2) autonomy vs. shame & doubt ( 1.5 to 3)

3) initiative vs. guilt (3 to 6)

4) industry vs. inferiority (6 to 11)

5) identity vs. role confusion (12 to 18)

6) intimacy vs. isolation (18 to 35)

7) gererativity vs. stagnation (35 to 60)

8) integrity vs. despair (65 and on)

Jean Piaget's Qualitative 4 Stages of Cognitive Development (Genetic Epistemology)

1) Sensorimoter (birth to 2)

2) Preoperational (2 to 7)

3) Concrete Operations (7 to 12)

4) Formal Operations 11.5 to 16)

Define Schema (JP)

Patterns of thought & behavior

Define Adaptation (JP)

occurs qualitatively when the individual fits information into existing ideas (also known as assimilation) & modifies cognitive schemata to incorporate new information (known as accommodation).

**Assimilation & accommodation are said to be complementary processes - the ages can vary in Piagetian stages, but the order is static.

Object Permanence (JP)

occurs in the sensiomotor stage -an object still exists, even if the child can't see it.

Centration (JP)

act of focusing on one aspect of something. Key factor in proportional stage.

Conservation (JP)

takes place in the concrete operations stage. Child knows that volume & quantity do not change, just because the appearance of an object changes. Change in shape does not equal change in volume (skinny tall glass vs. short stout glass)

Abstract Scientific Thinking (JP)

formal operations stage

Keegan's Constructive Developmental Model

emphasizes the impact of interpersonal interaction and our perception of reality

Lawrence Kohlberg's 3 Levels of Moral Development

Each level has 2 stages:

1) Preconventional Level: behavior is governed by consequences

2) Conventional Level: desire to conform to socially accepted rules

3) Postconventional Level: self-accepted moral principles guide behavior

Carol Gilligan's Theory of Moral Development for women

expanded on Kohlberg's theory - stated that women have a sense of caring & compassion

Daniel Levinson 4 major eras/transitions theory

Wrote Season's of a man's Life:

1) childhood & adolescence

2) early adulthood

3) middle adulthood

4) later adulthood

Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) & Zone of Proximal Development

proposed that cognitive development is produced by activities that take place in one's culture.

Zone of Proximal Development: difference in the child's ability to solve problems on disown & his capacity to solve them with the help of others.

THE HELPING RELATIONSHIP

Freud's Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic 5 Psychosexual Stages

1) oral (birth-1)

2) anal (1-3)

3) phallic/Oedipal Electra Complex ( 3-7)

4) latency (3 to 5 - 12)

5) genital (adolescence & adulthood)

Define Libido (Freud)

drive to live and the sexual instinct that is present, even at birth. Did to be sublimated in the latency stage as the individual has little interest in sex. This ends when puberty begins.

Define Regression (Freud)

Return to an earlier stage caused by stress

Define Fixation (Freud)

implies that the person is unable to move to the next stage

Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Lower-order physiological & safety needs must be fulfilled before self-actualization can occur

William Perry's 3 stage theory of intellectual & ethical development in adults/college students:

(Define Dualism, Relativism, & Commitment to Relativism)

Dualism - students view the truth as either right or wrong.

Relativism - notion that perfect answer may not exist. There is a desire to know various opinions.

Commitment to relativism - final stage, willing to change his opinion based on novel facts & new points of view.

James w. Fowler's Prestage + 6 stage Theory of Faith Development

1) Stage 0 Undifferentiated/ Primal faith (birth-4)

2) Stage 1 Intuitive-Projective Faith (2-7)

3) Mythic-literal Faith (childhood & beyond)

4) Synthetic-Conventional Faith (adolescence & beyond- conformity)

5) Individuative-Reflective Faith (young adulthood & beyond)

6) Conjunctive Faith (mid-30s & beyond- open to other points of view, paradox, and appreciation of symbols)

7) Unversalizing Faith (midlife & beyond- few ever reach this stage)

Fowler's view on faith is ...

not identical to religion. It can be religious, but it also can be about career, country, instituation, family, money, success, or even one's self. Changes throughout the lifespan

SOCIAL & CULTURAL FOUNDATIONS

Define Culture & Acculuration

Culture - habits, customs, art, religion, science & political behavior of a given group of people during a period of time

Acculturation - Learning the behaviors & expectations of a culture

Define Universal Culture & know national, regional, & ecological

Universal - implies that we are all genetically & biologically similar - 'biological sameness'

*National (language, laws, political views)

*Regional (behavior expectations for a certain area)

*Ecological (natural disasters & resources influence behavior)

Define Racism & Ethnocentrism

Racism - when one race considers themselves superior to others

Ethnocentrism - a given group sees itself as the standard by which all others are measured

Define Emic & Etic Approaches

Emic - counselor helps Clt understand his/her own culture (looks for cultural influencing factors)

Etic - counselor focuses on similarities of all people (generalizes)

Define the autoplastic- alloplastic dillemma

Autoplastic (self)- helps Clt change self to cope with environment

Alloplastic (all people) - has the Clt try to change their environment

Define Stereotyping & Prejudice

Stereotyping - act of thinking that all people of a group are alike.

Prejudice - having an opinion based on insufficient evidence

Social Comparison Theory & Anglo-Conformity Theory

SCT - Leon Festinger - we evaluate our behaviors & accomplishments by comparing ourselves to others

ACT- people from other cultures would be better off forgeting their heritage and try to conform to the dominant macro culture

Minority Identity Development Model (Racial/Cutural Identity Development Model R/CID) 5 stages:

By Atkinson, Morten, & Sue

1) Conformity (prefer dominant culture)

2) Dissonance ( question & confusion, prefer a minority counselor)

3) Resistance & Immersion (reject dominant culture)

4) Introspection (mixed feelings, prefer a counselor with same minority)

5) Synergetic Articulation/Awareness (stop oppression, prefers a counselor with similar worldviews)

Freud's ego defense mechanisms * double check

1) repression - one forgets painful memory or trauma

2) displacement - taking anger out on a safe target instead

3) projection - can't accept a quality about yourself so you attribute it to others (looking out a window, but really you are looking in a mirror)

4) reaction formation - deny an unacceptable unconscious implies by acting the opposite way

5) sublimation - you express an unacceptable impulse in an acceptable way (like cutting, become a butcher)

6) rationalization - overrating or uderrating a reward or outcome

7) identification - joining a feared group to alleivate anxiety (like a gang)

8) suppression/denial - purposefully don't think about something

Define Transference & Countertransference

Transference - Clt behaves a certain way, because they see counselor as figure from their life

Countertransference - Counselor behaves a certain way, for the same reason

Eros & Thantos

Eros - Life instinct

Thantos - Death instinct

Carl Jung Analytic Psychology

(Psychodynamic)

Unconscious - personal (individual) & collective (all people)

Archetypes:

*Persona - mask a person wears

*Animus (masculine part of the female)/ Animus (feminine part of the male)

*Androgynous - both characteristics

*Self - symbolized via Mandala, balance btwn personal & collective

*Indivuduation -becoming unique

***extroversion/introversion typologies

Alfred Adler's Individual Psychology

psychodynamic theory that postulates the unconscious behavior is attempt to compensate for inferiority

*will to power - generate feelings of superiority

*fictional finalism - motivated by future opportunities

* birth order - family constellation impacts behavior

B.F Skinner

Behavior is molded by consequences - operant conditioning

Albert Bandura's Social Learning Theory

behavior modification through observation - known as vicarious or modeling

Ivan Pavlov

Classical Conditioning - (behavior modification is Skinner, behavior therapy is Pavlov)

*answer to pavlov - are all humans capable of __? If yes, then the answer is likely Pavlov not skinner....

Joseph Wolpe - Systematic Desentization

to curb fears and abate anxiety

Carl Rogers:Person-Centered Humanistic Therapy

3 conditions - show empathy, be genuine, & display unconditional positive regard

Robert Ellis: Active-Directive Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy

cognitive behavioral approach:

*change thinking, change life

* irrational & rational beliefs

*ABCDE model of personality

A-event

B- Clt belief system

C-emotional consquence

D- counselor disputes

E- new response when B becomes rational

Aaron Beck: Cognitive Therapy

*automatic thoughts (distortions of reality),which are:

1)polarized thinking - black & white

2) overgeneralizing - too broad

3) personalization - attributing to self

4) drawing conclusions - no evidence

Fritz Perlz: Gestalt Therapy

Existential approach:

* Gestalt = organized whole

*here-n-now focus

*dreams (recount as if happening now)

* what & how questions

*goal - Clt to take responsibility & achieve awareness

Eric Berne: Transactional Analysis

Define: Tom Harris's Life Positions & Karpaman's drama triangle

*Life script = life plan

*ego states = parent (superego), adult (ego), & child (id) (PAC)

*Life positions = I'm ok, you're ok/I'm okay, you're not/I'm not ok, you're not ok

*games are used to avoid intimacy

* Karpman's = person changes position from victim, to prosecutor, to rescuer during a discussion

William Glasser: Reality Therapy w/ Choice Theory

* double check this one

Clt's create their own realities & challenges the medical model of psychiatry:

* 5 psychological needs: belonging, freedom, fun, power, (love?)

* 8 steps of reality therapy, short term treatment

Narrative Therapy: By Michael White & David Epston, & Solution-Focused Brief Therapy: By Steve DeShazer & Insoo Kim Berg, are considered ____ theories and emphasize ___.

Post-Modern Social Constructionivist Theories, reality is socially constructed

Narrative = Clt's tell their story in a new fashion

SFBT = focus on what is working, ignore the rest

Psychotherapy Integration is what?

using strategies from several theories - using 2 or more is superior to using a sole theory in counseling.

FAMILY/ MARRIAGE COUNSELING

Family Counseling asserts what?

Define First-Order Change & Second-Order Change

pathology resides in the family system, not an individual

1st-order change = superficial changes to deal w/ an issue - does not alter the underlying issues in the family

2nd-order change = alters underlying issues, lasts longer

Define Case Integration & Milieu Therapy

Case = several helpers coordinate care w/o duplicating services (social workers, GAL, Doctors)

Milieu = urges helpers to change the Clt's entire environment (social & physical) to help Clt even outside of sessions. (Inpatient or CPS)

Nathan Ackerman (psychodynamic), Virginia Satir (experiemental), Carl Whitaker (experiementalist), Murray Bowen (intergenerational/extended), Salvador Minuchin (structural), Jay Haley & Chloe Madaness (strategy/MRI), are all famous ____ therapists.

Family

Virginia Satir's 4 inept patterns of family communication are ___.

1) The placator = tries to please everyone

2) The blamer = (duh)

3) The Reasonable Analyzer = intellect

4) The Irrelevant Distracter = interrupts & changes topics

Murray Bowen

1) Triangulation= bring in a 3rd person to reduce stress

2) Genograms = graph generations

3) Fusion = can't separate thinking from feeling

4) Differentiation = ability to control reason over emotion

Known as the father of Mental Health Consultation

Gerald Caplan

Created the Purchase of Expertise Model

Edgar Schein

Salvador Minuchin is known as the leading name of ___ family therapy and is popular for using ___ & ___ techniques.

Structural, Joining (blending in w/ the family), & mimesis (mimicking family communication patterns)

The Milan Model is performed using ___

a treatment team behind a 1-way mirror

GROUPS

Irvin Yalom's 11 Factors **check this

1) Altruism: helping others promotes well-being

2) Universality: you are not alone in the world

3) Installation of Hope: members expect the group to work

4) Catharsis: talking about difficulties is beneficial

5) Group Cohesiveness: we-ness

6) Imitative Behavior: copy behavior of others

7) Family Reenactment: family of origin issues

8) Imparting Information: adivce or insights

9) Interpersonal Learning: members recieve feedback

10) Socialization Techniques: feedback & instruction

11)Existential Factors: life has meaning

Ideal group size is ___.

Define Stage Model of Group Dynamics.

5-8 members. Longer groups may have more members.

3-4 is preferable for children

1) Forming/Orienting = get accquainted

2) Storming/Transition/Conflict = power struggles

3) Working/Productive/Action/Performing = works together as a unit

4) Termination/Closure/Completion/Mourning & Adjourning = saying goodbye

Group Leadership Styles

1) Authoritarian/Autocratic = makes decisions for group members, holds all power. builds resentment unless in crisis

2) Laissez Faire/Hands-Off = leader has little involvement, appropriate when all group members are committed. (AA)

3) Democratic = joint decision making, balanced, preferable

4) Speculative leaders = charismatic, rely on personal power

5) Confrontive leaders = honest about impact everyone has on each other

6 Different Types of Groups

1) Psychoeducational/Guidance = provide members w/ info relevant to their situation

2) Counseling = focus on conscious issues related to growth & development

3) Group Therapy = (Jacob Moreno) focus on unconscious material, the past, & personality changes

4) T-Groups = (training) intended for business or motivation

5) Structured Groups = centered on certain issues - shyness, or how to prep for a job interview

6) Self-Help/Support = (AA) 12-steps, not led by a pro

LIFESTYLE & CAREER

Frank Parsons is the Father of ___ & created the __ and __ Theory.

(Believes that there is 1 right career for everyone)

Guidance; Trait-&-Factor (matching/actuarial)

*Match Clt traits to the occupation

Anne Roe

Psychodynamic Needs Approach (6 levels/8 feilds)

Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad & Herma (1950's) proposed a developmental theory w/ 3 main periods:

1) Fantasy (birth-11) play becomes work oriented

2) Tentative (11-17)

3) Realistic (17 & up)

David Teideman & Robert O'Hara's developmental model of careers matches ___'s 8 stages of human development

Erik Erikson

Donald Super is known for ___ & ___.

1) Self-Concept in Career Choice & Life Rainbow

John Holland: Personality Typology Theory, List the 6 types.

(The (SII) was based on this theory.)

1) Realistic

2) Investigative

3) Artistic

4) Social

5) Enterprising

6) Conventional

(RAISEC)

Krumboltz, Mitchell, & Jones believed that career choice is based on ___ theory. List 4 impacting factors

*Social Learning

1) genetic factors/ special abilities

2) environment/special events

3) learning experiences

4) task approach & problem solving skills

Linda S. Gottfredson emphasized ___ & ___ in the 1980s.

1) Circumscription (narrowing acceptable alternatives)

2)Compromise (realization that Clt will not implement their most preferred choices) as impacted by:

family obligation, hiring practices, educational programs.

Lent, Brown, & Hackett created the __ __ __ Theory, it complements other theories by emphasizing self-efficacy & cognitive processes.

Social Cognitive Career Theory

Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT), was replaced by ___.

(over 20,000 job titles + 9 digit codes); ONET

Occupational Outlook Handbook (OOH)

provides job trend info, future predictions and salaries

Guide for Occupational Information (GOE)

14 interest areas to help fine tune career searchs

APPRAISALS (TEST & DIAGNOSIS)

Define Standarized Test

*uniform proceedures for scoring & administration

*have validity & reliability & norm data

Mental Measurements Yearbook

provide counselors with info on thousands of of tests

Raw Score; Standard Score

is unaltered; converted score (t, z scores, % rank, standard deviation)

3 measures of central tendency:

Mean, Median, Mode

1) mean = average

2) median = middle score

3) mode = most frequent

Skewed curve, left is __, right is __.

negatively skewed; positively skewed.

Standard Deviation

measure of variability or dispersion of scores.

T- Score Definition

Z - Score Definition

Empirical 68-95-99.7 Normal Curve Rule

1) 68% of scores fall w/in 1 SD from the mean

2) 95% of scores fall w/in 2 SD from the mean

3) 99.7% of scores fall w/in 3 SD from the mean

Define Validity & Reliability

V - does the test actually measure what it claims to?

R - is the test consistent

**a reliable test is not always valid, but a valid test is always reliable!

Define:

Aptitude Test

Achievement Test

Intelligence Test

Power Test vs. Speed Test

Projective Test

1) Aptitutude = predict potential

2) Achievement = current accomplishments (6th grade reading level)

3) Intelligence = (Wechsler/Binet) measure mental abilities. (controversial)

4) Power = not timed, Speed = timed

5) projective = no correct answer, projection of personality (ink blot, TAT)

Regression to the Mean Definition

exceptional high or low scores will move toward the mean/average - chance factors likely influenced the extreme scores (attractiveness)

RESEARCH & PROGRAM EVALUATION

Correlation Definition (know scores & +/- correlations)

* an association/ relationship

*perfect correlation scores are -1, 0,+1

* positive = X goes up, Y goes up

*negative = X goes up, Y goes down

Define Quantitative & Qualitative Research Methods

Define True Experiment

Quantitative = measures things, yields numbers

Qualitative = measures relationships & differences, describes current conditions, contributing factors

True Experiment = 2 or more groups are used.

List 4 Major Designs of Quantitative Research

1) Descriptive/Survey (describe)

2) Correlational (measures relationshp)

3) Causal-Comparative (explore relationships of variables that cannot be controlled)

4) Experimental (establish cause & effect)

Types of Sampling:

1) Random = random assignment

2) systematic = every nth person is used

Quasi-experiemental Research

* cannot control IV

* groups not picked at random

*cannot ensure causality

Experimental hypothesis vs. null hypothesis

* Hypothesis = there is a difference/relationship, etc.

*Null = no difference/relationship, etc.

Type I vs. Type II Error

Type I = researcher rejects null hypothesis when it is true

Type II = researcher accepts null when it should have been rejected

N =1 is a ___ subject design

single; (case studies)

Define:

Demand Characteristics

Obtrusive/Reactive Measure

Unobtrusive Measure

Demand = subjects in a study have cues regarding what the researcher desires/doesn't desire that can influence subject's behavior. (can be confounding)

Obtrusive = subjects know they are being observed

Unobtrusive = subjects are unaware