Media, Culture & Society

epistemology

epistemology

… is the study of knowledge and belief. It explores how knowledge is acquired, justified belief, and the nature of truth. It examines different ways of knowing and investigates their limits and reliability. … also explores the relationship between the knower and the known, and the role of evidence and justification in forming beliefs. Its goal is to understand the nature, sources, and validity of knowledge.

ontology

… is a branch of philosophy that deals with the study of existence, reality, and the nature of being. It explores questions about what exists, how things are related, and the fundamental categories and properties of existence. In computer science, … refers to a formal representation of knowledge that defines concepts, relationships, and properties within a specific domain. It is used to facilitate knowledge sharing, reasoning, and semantic interoperability between different systems and applications.

agenda setting theory

… is a communication theory that suggests that the media has the power to influence the importance and salience of topics in public opinion. It posits that the media's selection and presentation of news can shape what issues the public considers significant. In other words, the media doesn't tell people what to think, but rather what to think about. This theory highlights the media's role in shaping public discourse.

analytic induction

… is a research method used in social sciences to develop theories or explanations based on empirical evidence. It involves systematically analyzing data to identify patterns, relationships, and causal connections. Through a process of comparing and contrasting cases, researchers generate hypotheses and refine them based on new evidence. This iterative process helps in building theoretical frameworks and understanding complex phenomena.

banal nationalism

… refers to the everyday, subtle forms of nationalism that are ingrained in our daily lives and often go unnoticed. It involves the mundane expressions of national identity, such as displaying flags, singing national anthems, or using national symbols.

cultural adaptation

… refers to the process by which individuals or groups adjust to and adopt the customs, values, and behaviors of a different culture. It involves modifying one's own cultural practices to fit into a new cultural environment. This can include learning the language, understanding social norms, and adapting to new traditions.

cultural essentialism

example: Clash of Civilizations by Samuel P. Huntington

… is the belief that certain cultural traits or characteristics are inherent and unchangeable.

economic determinism

… is the theory that economic factors, such as the mode of production and distribution, shape and determine social and political structures. It suggests that economic conditions are the primary driving force behind societal changes. For example, Karl Marx's theory of historical materialism argues that the capitalist mode of production leads to class struggle and ultimately the overthrow of capitalism by the proletariat.

marxism

… advocates for the abolition of private property and the establishment of a classless society where the means of production are owned and controlled by the working class.
By …. & Engels
can be considered: technological determinism, economic determinism, structuralism, or critical theory

critical theory

… is a social and philosophical approach that aims to analyze and critique society and culture, with the goal of identifying and challenging power structures and inequalities. One example of … is the analysis of how media perpetuates stereotypes and reinforces dominant ideologies, such as the representation of women in advertising.

technological determinism

… is the belief that technology shapes and controls society's development. It suggests that technological advancements drive social change. One example of …. is the impact of the internet on communication and information sharing, which has transformed various aspects of society, such as business, education, and social interactions.

Ideology

Refers to:

• sets of ideas which hive some account of the social world

• ideas which are usually partial and selective

• the relationship of these ideas or values to the ways in which power is distributed socially.

Imagined communities

example: “The Origins of National Consciousness” by Anderson (2006)

Anderson argues that nations are not natural or objective entities, but rather … created through shared beliefs, symbols, and narratives.

socialism

… is an economic and political ideology that advocates for collective ownership and control of the means of production. It aims to create a more equitable society by redistributing wealth and resources. One example of … is the Nordic model, where countries like Sweden and Denmark have high levels of social welfare and government intervention in the economy to ensure social equality.

paradigm

A … is a set of beliefs, assumptions, and practices upon which the e.g. research is based on. It is a model, pattern, or method of conducting research with specific ontological, epistemological, and methodological concerns. Different … don’t have to be mutually exclusive per se.

positivism

This is like using a ruler to measure things. Believers in this approach believe that the only things we can know for sure are the things we can see, touch, or measure. They like facts and numbers and want to find objective, concrete answers to questions.

An example of a … can be seen in the field of sociology, where researchers use quantitative data and statistical analysis to study social behavior and patterns.

constructivism

example: B. Anderson “Imagined communities” OR peach emoji: invented to represent a fruit, and now represents something else

… is a theory that suggests individuals actively construct their own knowledge and understanding of the world through experiences and interactions. It emphasizes the importance of hands-on learning, collaboration, and reflection.

structuralism

example: banal nationalism; misogyny; woman empowerment is influenced by consumerism.

… is a theoretical framework that emerged in the field of social sciences and linguistics. It focuses on analyzing and understanding the underlying structures and systems that shape human behavior, language, and culture. People who study it, aim to uncover the hidden patterns and rules that govern various aspects of society and language.

social contructivism

Explains that there is no ultimate “truth”. Instead, reality is constructed by people in social ways. It is a product of mutual understanding and the belief that knowledge is ever-changing.
example: Fandoms - fans are constructing and re-constructing the meaning of the media.

Hossfeld, Karen J

This person is the author of “Their Logic Against Them”: Contradictions in Sex, Race, and Class in Silicon Valley, in Technicolor: Race, Technology, and Everyday Life.
They are building on marxist ideas, but also include missing pieces such as race, gender, class, etc.
They use example of Sri Lanka, explain feminisation of labour and its impact on women workers.

orientalism

example: Edward Said with a book of the same name
Western approach to the study, depiction, and representation of the Middle East and other non-Western cultures. It often involves the stereotyping, romanticizing, and misrepresentation of these cultures, perpetuating Eurocentric perspectives.

Example: In 19th-century European art, the painting "The Snake Charmer" by Jean-Léon Gérôme reflects Orientalism. It portrays a romanticized and exoticized version of Middle Eastern life, emphasizing elements like exotic clothing, mysticism, and sensuality, which may not accurately represent the diverse and complex reality of the region.

Rosa Luxemburg

This person builds on Marx’s manifesto and argues that marxism should include democracy.

capitalism

according to communist manifesto it is a: an economic system based on profit that is also a social system based on exploitation of workers (those who must "sell their labour") by capital (those who own "the means of production")

Antonio Gramsci

This person builds on the communist manifesto, but argues that Societal transformation not only about economics, structurally determined: ideas matter too. Class struggle also about the struggle over ideas: 'hegemony' is how the powerful control ideas to maintain status-quo, persuade "the masses" to accept dominant ideologies.
Culture (practices. artefacts. institutions) is integral to how ruling classes create consent

Stuart Hall

Builds on the communist manifesto and other’s interpretations of it. 'Mass Media' does work as an instrument of the ruling class but it is also a 'field of ideological struggle'; ruling classes do not get to control the media, or ideas all the time as they counter organized resistance from oppositional, and minority constituencies.
Media cultural practices also a domain of struggle against hegemonic power.

intersectionality

… is a way of looking at the world that takes a stance that gender is a lens that is as important as race, class, sexuality, and religion.

Alan Chalmers

This person suggests that there are 3 aspects to widely held claims that facts are the basis of science: "(a) facts are directly given to careful, unprejudiced observers via the senses; (b) Facts are prior and independent of theory; facts constitute a firm and reliable foundation for scientific knowledge.They then proceeds to question these three assumptions: (a) seeing is not believing; (b) what we see is "not determined solely by the object viewed"; what we often take to be "observable facts" are actually statements of fact (true or false).

Hypodermic needle theory

…, also known as the "Magic Bullet" or "Transmission Belt" theory, is a now-discredited model in media studies. It suggests that media messages are inserting information directly into the passive and receptive minds of the audience, leading to a predictable and uniform response.

Example: During the early 20th century, some researchers and critics believed that listening to violent radio broadcasts could directly incite aggressive behavior in listeners, assuming a one-to-one impact.

Economy of visibility

… is a concept in contemporary society, often associated with the rise of social media and digital platforms. It refers to the idea that in this digital age, individuals, organizations, and even products gain value, influence, or success by being visible and attention-worthy.

Example: An Instagram influencer or a YouTube content creator. They achieve success by amassing a large following and generating significant online engagement.

Media

Means, through which the content is communicated between the origin and the destination

Uses & gratification theory

… is a communication theory that focuses on the active role of media consumers. It suggests that people choose media content and platforms based on their individual needs and desires.

Example: Suppose someone uses social media primarily for staying connected with friends and family. According to the theory, this individual is seeking social interaction and personal connection as their primary gratification from the medium. They use social media to fulfill their need for socializing and maintaining relationships.

participatory culture

… refers to a social environment in which individuals actively engage in creating, sharing, and consuming content. It emphasizes collaboration, open communication, and active involvement of community members in shaping the culture.

Example, Wikipedia, where users from around the world contribute, edit, and curate content collectively.

G. Wekker

This person draws on the works of Said but adds her personal angle. They discuss innocence, the cultural archive, and white-dutch self representation.

Cultural archive

… is a collection of materials, such as documents, artifacts, recordings, or any other forms of media, that are intentionally preserved and organized to represent and document the culture, history, and heritage of a particular society, group, or community. … are essential for preserving and passing down knowledge and traditions to future generations.

Marshall McLuhan

This person coined the terms such as “media is the message/massage” “hot vs cold media” and “global village”. Some people describe his theories as technological determinism.

Global village

Marshall McLuhan coined this term to describe the way electronic communication technologies, particularly television, were shrinking the world and bringing people from different parts of the globe closer together.

Donna Haraway

Author of “Primate visions” which lays the foundation for her exploration of the intersections between gender, race, and science in the world of primatology and natural history. She argues that science, as a cultural practice, is deeply entwined with gendered and racialized perspectives (feminist epistemology), and points out that colonialism played a significant role in shaping the narratives and representations of both human and non-human primates.

E. Abrahamian

Author of “The US Media, Huntington and September 11”, strongly opposes cultural essentialism ideas presented in Huntington’s “Clash of Civilisations”

N. Postman

Author of “Amusing ourselves to death” and “Technopoly”, has a very pessimistic view on technology → technological determinism.

S. Banet-Weiser

Author of “Empowered: Popular feminism and popular misogyny”. The book explores the contemporary landscape of popular culture and media through the lens of feminism and misogyny. The book delves into the complex interplay of these two forces, examining how feminism has been co-opted and commodified in popular culture while also coexisting with virulent forms of misogyny. The central argument of the book is that popular feminism has not only influenced culture but has also been shaped by it, often in problematic ways

H.K.Bhabha

Author of “Introduction: Locations of culture in The location of culture”. They lay the foundation for the exploration of cultural identity and the complexities of postcolonialism. Their work is renowned for its influence on postcolonial studies and cultural theory. The book includes several key points: 1) cultural identities are not fixed or essential but are formed through processes of hybridity and mimicry, reflecting both the colonizer's and colonized's influences 2) the notion of “third space” 3) the role of narrative in constructing cultural identity (constructivism)

Hot Media

In Marshall McLuhan's media theory, "…" is a term used to describe forms of communication that are high in definition and provide a lot of information to the audience. … require little active participation or interpretation from the audience because they provide a high level of detail and specificity. Typically, … are unidirectional and do not leave much room for the audience's participation or imagination.

Example: a printed book. When you read a book, the text provides a high level of detail, and you do not need to actively interpret or fill in many gaps. The words on the pages are rich in information, and the medium itself does not demand much interaction or participation from the reader.

Cold Media

Marshall McLuhan's media theory classifies … as forms of communication that are low in definition and require active audience participation or interpretation to extract meaning. These media typically provide less information and require the audience to "fill in the gaps" and engage more with the content. … often leave more room for interpretation and imagination.

Example: cartoon or a comic strip. When you view a cartoon or comic, it provides relatively less visual and narrative information compared to, say, a high-definition movie. The audience must actively engage their imagination to understand the meaning, context, and emotions portrayed in the simplified or abstract visuals.

imperialism

… is a political and economic system in which a powerful nation extends its influence and control over other countries or regions through various means, including military force, diplomacy, and economic dominance. This expansion of power often involves the acquisition and administration of colonies or territories by the imperialist country, with the aim of exploiting their resources, labor, or strategic advantages.

Example: In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, European powers engaged in imperialism in various parts of the world. For instance, the British Empire expanded its influence across Africa and Asia, establishing colonies and protectorates. These colonies were often exploited for their natural resources, labor, and markets.