AP Psych UNIT 2 VOCAB

Bottom-top processing

definition: a type of processing that uses sensory information to form perceptions. It's also known as stimulus-driven or data-driven perception.

ex) noticing a brightly colored painting before a subdued one

hearing thunder and seeing a dark sky, and then deciding to bring an umbrella

Top-down processing

definition: a type of processing that uses prior knowledge to interpret new information. It's a way for the brain to make sense of the world by filling in gaps in understanding.

ex) reading typos: Using prior knowledge to understand a word even if it's misspelled.

Schemas

definition: a mental trait that organizes knowledge about the world. they help people interpret new information, solve problems, and make decisions.

they are based on past experiences, knowledge, and beliefs. they can help you quickly make sense of new situations. However, they can also contribute to stereotypes and biases. 

ex) you might expect to see a bed and desk in a campus room, but not a microwave or oven.

you might have it for how people behave in certain social situations. 

Perceptual sets

definition: our expectations and past experiences influence how we interpret sensory information, often causing us to focus on certain aspects of a stimulus while ignoring others.

ex) someone who is very hungry might be more likely to notice the smell of food in a room than someone who is not hungry.

it’s a form of top-down processing and using schema.

Gestalt psychology principles

definition: people perceive objects and situations as a whole, rather than as a collection of individual parts. The way we group things

closure: means our brains tend to fill in missing gaps to perceive a complete object, even if parts are missing

figure and ground: refers to our ability to distinguish between the focal point (figure) and the background (ground) in an image.

proximity: states that objects close together are perceived as a group.

similarity: means we naturally group objects that share similar characteristics like color or shape together.

Selective attention

definition: the ability to focus on a specific stimulus while ignoring distractions

ex) when driving, you can focus on the road ahead while ignoring billboards and pedestrians.

Cocktail party effect

definition: the ability to focus on a specific conversation or sound in a noisy environment, like at a party, while filtering out other competing sounds, such as when you instantly hear your name being called even if you're not actively listening to that conversation.

Change blindness

definition: it is a psychological phenomenon that occurs when someone doesn't notice a change in their visual environment.

ex) you're so focused on a conversation that you don't notice someone new standing near you

Bioncular depth cues

definition: they are visual signals that allow us to perceive depth by using information from both eyes.

retinal disparity: this occurs because our eyes are positioned slightly apart, leading to different images being projected onto each retina. The brain then combines these slightly different images to create a perception of depth.

convergence: when looking at a close object, the eye muscles must work to turn the eyes inwards, and the brain interprets the degree of muscle tension as an indication of the object's distance.

ex) retinal disparity example: Holding a finger close to your face and alternately closing each eye you'll notice the finger appears to shift position relative to the background.

convergence example: As you bring your finger closer to your nose, you feel your eyes turning inwards to focus on it, which signals to your brain that the object is getting closer.

Monocular depth cues

definition: refers to a visual cue that allows us to perceive depth using only one eye

relative size: judging the distance of an object based on how large it appears compared to other objects of known size; a distant car appearing smaller than a nearby car.

texture gradient: when a surface texture appears denser and finer as it gets further away, indicating depth.

linear perspective: parallel lines seemingly converging as they extend into the distance, like the lines on a road appearing to meet at the horizon.

interposition: when one object partially overlaps another, making the overlapping object appear further away; If you see a person standing in front of a tree, the person appears closer because they partially block the view of the tree behind them.

perceptual constancies

definition: the tendency to perceive objects as having a standard shape, size, color, or location, even when the viewing conditions change.

ex) seeing an object as having the same shape, even when viewed from different angles. for example, a plate appears circular even when viewed from the side.

Concepts

definition: a mental representation of a category of things, events, or ideas. they help us organize and understand the world around us.

ex) dog: includes the idea of a four-legged animal with fur and a wagging tail

apple: includes the idea of a fruit that can be eaten or thrown

car: includes the idea of a vehicle with doors and tires

Prototypes

definition: a cognitive theory that describes how people use ___ to categorize objects and concepts.

ex) a person might categorize a golden retriever as a dog because it's similar to their idea of a dog.

assimilation

definition: refers to the cognitive process where new information is integrated into existing knowledge structures (schemas), essentially fitting new experiences into what we already know.

ex) if a child learns the concept of "car" and then sees a truck, they might initially classify the truck as a "car" as well because it shares similar features.

Accommodation

definition: the process of changing existing ideas to fit new information or experiences. It can also involve creating new ideas.

ex) learning about animals: a child might initially think that all four-legged animals are dogs, but later learns that cats also have four legs. The child then ____ this new information by creating a new schema for cats.

Algorithms

definition: a defined set of step-by-step procedures or rules that, when followed correctly, guarantee the correct answer to a specific problem

ex) following the order of operations (PEMDAS) to solve a complex equation is an example of an algorithm.

Heuristics

definition: mental shortcuts that help people make quick judgments. while they can be useful, they can also lead to errors.

availability heuristics: judging an event based on how easy it is to recall similar events

ex) if you can easily recall news stories about plane crashes, you might overestimate the risk of dying in a plane crash.

representative heuristics: judging an event based on how well it matches a prototype or stereotype

ex) if you meet someone who is short, slim, and likes reading, you might think they are more likely to be a professor than a weightlifter.

Mental set

definition: when your mind has a predisposition that influences how individuals approach, perceive, and solve problems

ex) if someone has always solved math problems using a specific method, they may persist in using that method even when it is no longer effective. they have a fixed mindset and that limits the ability to consider alternative solutions.

Priming

definition: when exposure to a stimulus influences how someone responds to a later stimulus.

ex) associating a certain smell with a memory.

Framing

definition: a cognitive bias that occurs when people make decisions based on how information is presented, rather than the facts themselves.

ex) when choosing a disinfectant, you might choose the one that kills 95% of germs over the one that kills 5%.

Gambler’s fallacy

definition: a cognitive bias that causes people to believe that past events can influence the probability of future events.

ex) a gambler might believe that the next dice roll is more likely to be six if there have recently been fewer than the expected number of sixe

Sunk-cost fallacy

definition: the tendency for people to continue investing time, money, or effort into something, even when it is no longer beneficial, simply because they have already invested significantly in it, essentially feeling like they can't "waste" the previous investment made.

ex) me playing club volleyball, then school and then the concept of me going to play club again even though I won’t play for the school.

Executive functions

definition: a set of cognitive processes that enable individuals to manage their thoughts, behaviors, and emotions effectively. they play a crucial role in goal-directed behavior, problem-solving, and decision-making.

ex) the ability to shift attention between tasks, adapt to changing situations, and revise strategies.

Creativity

definition: the ability to think and produce new ideas, theories, or solutions.

ex) using imagination to paint an original painting from your mind.

Divergent thinking

definition: a type of thinking that involves generating a wide range of creative and original ideas in response to a problem or question.

ex) producing a large number of ideas, generating unique and novel ideas

Convergent thinking

definition: a type of thinking that involves focusing on finding the best possible solution to a problem or question. It emphasizes logic, analysis, and critical evaluation to narrow down options and arrive at a single, correct answer.

ex) tasks such as multiple-choice tests, problem-solving with well-defined parameters, and decision-making based on evidence.

Functional fixedness

definition: a cognitive bias where an individual is unable to see an object's potential uses beyond its traditional or familiar function

ex) if someone needs to tie two cords together but only has a hammer, ____ might prevent them from realizing that the hammer can be used as a weight to swing the cords closer together, making them easier to tie.