F.O.N Vocab 6.4-6.9

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Robber Barons

Wealthy industrialists of the late 19th century, such as Rockefeller and Vanderbilt, who amassed fortunes through aggressive business practices. While they drove economic growth and innovation, they were criticized for exploiting workers and eliminating competition. The term reflects the growing divide between rich and poor during the Gilded Age.

Vertical Integration

A business strategy where a company controls every stage of production, from raw materials to distribution. Popularized by industrialists like Andrew Carnegie, it maximized efficiency and profits. Vertical integration allowed companies to dominate industries and reduce reliance on external suppliers.

Horizontal Combination

A business strategy where a company merges or acquires competitors in the same industry to increase market share. John D. Rockefeller's Standard Oil used this tactic to create a near-monopoly. It often led to antitrust concerns and the eventual passage of regulatory laws.

Alexander Graham Bell

An inventor best known for creating the telephone, revolutionizing communication. His invention spurred the growth of telecommunications and contributed to the modernization of business and society. Bell's work laid the foundation for global connectivity.

Thomas Alva Edison

A prolific inventor who developed the light bulb, phonograph, and motion picture camera, among other innovations. His work transformed daily life and industrial processes. Edison's legacy is tied to the rise of electrical power and technological advancement in the late 19th century.

John D. Rockefeller

The founder of Standard Oil, Rockefeller built one of the first great industrial monopolies through horizontal integration and trusts. His wealth and philanthropic efforts shaped both industry and society. He remains a symbol of both economic innovation and the excesses of capitalism.

Cornelius Vanderbilt

A transportation magnate who revolutionized the railroad and shipping industries. Vanderbilt's investments and consolidation efforts were key to the expansion of the U.S. economy. His wealth and influence exemplify the power of the Gilded Age elite.

Interlocking Directorates

A practice where the same individuals serve on the boards of multiple companies, often creating alliances to control industries. This method, used by figures like J.P. Morgan, concentrated economic power. It led to calls for antitrust reforms to prevent monopolistic practices.

Corporation

A legal entity separate from its owners, allowing individuals to pool resources and limit personal liability. Corporations drove the industrial boom by enabling large-scale investments. They became the dominant form of business organization in the Gilded Age.

Trust

A business arrangement where multiple companies are managed by a single board to reduce competition. Pioneered by Standard Oil, trusts created monopolies but faced criticism for stifling innovation and harming consumers. Antitrust laws like the Sherman Act targeted these practices.

Holding Company

A company that owns controlling shares in other companies, allowing it to influence or control their operations. This structure facilitated monopolies and conglomerates in the late 19th century. Holding companies often circumvented antitrust laws, prompting further regulation.

Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad Company (1886)

A Supreme Court case that affirmed corporations are considered "persons" under the Fourteenth Amendment for certain legal purposes. Although the ruling itself did not explicitly address this, the case set a precedent for corporate rights. It significantly shaped U.S. corporate law and regulation.

JP Morgan

A powerful financier and banker who dominated corporate finance and industrial consolidation during the Gilded Age. Morgan organized major mergers, including the creation of U.S. Steel, and stabilized the economy during financial crises. His influence made him a symbol of both industrial power and wealth inequality.

Andrew Carnegie

An industrialist who led the expansion of the U.S. steel industry using vertical integration. His "Gospel of Wealth" advocated for the philanthropic responsibility of the rich. Carnegie’s legacy includes both his business empire and extensive contributions to education and libraries.

Sherman Antitrust Act

The first federal law aimed at curbing monopolies by prohibiting business practices that restrained trade or competition. It targeted trusts like Standard Oil but was initially weakly enforced. The act became a cornerstone of antitrust policy in later reforms.

United States v. E.C. Knight Company (1895)

A Supreme Court case that limited the application of the Sherman Antitrust Act by ruling that manufacturing was not considered interstate commerce. This decision weakened the government's ability to regulate monopolies. It highlighted the challenges of addressing corporate power in the 19th century.

Taylor and Scientific Management

Frederick Winslow Taylor developed scientific management principles to increase industrial efficiency by optimizing labor tasks. His methods, known as "Taylorism," revolutionized factory production but were criticized for dehumanizing workers. Taylor’s ideas laid the groundwork for modern industrial management.

Sears Roebuck and Co

A pioneering mail-order company that revolutionized retail by delivering goods directly to customers nationwide. Founded in the 1880s, it brought a wide range of affordable products to rural America. Sears played a significant role in shaping consumer culture in the U.S.

Collective Bargaining

A process where unions negotiate with employers on behalf of workers to secure better wages, hours, and conditions. It became a cornerstone of labor rights movements in the late 19th century. Collective bargaining helped balance power between labor and management during industrialization.

 Knights of Labor

A labor organization founded in 1869 that sought to unite workers across industries to advocate for an eight-hour workday, equal pay, and other reforms. It was inclusive of skilled and unskilled workers but declined after association with the Haymarket Riot. The Knights paved the way for later labor unions.

Haymarket Riot

A labor protest in Chicago that turned violent when a bomb exploded, killing police and civilians. The incident led to widespread anti-labor sentiment and the decline of the Knights of Labor. It remains a pivotal moment in the history of labor activism and government responses to unrest.

American Federation of Labor

Founded in 1886 by Samuel Gompers, it was a national labor union focused on skilled workers. The AFL prioritized "bread-and-butter" issues like wages and working conditions. It became one of the most enduring labor organizations in U.S. history.

Samuel Gompers

A labor leader and founder of the American Federation of Labor. Gompers advocated for practical labor reforms through collective bargaining rather than radical change. His leadership helped legitimize union movements in the U.S.

Homestead Strike

A violent labor strike at Carnegie Steel's Homestead plant in Pennsylvania over wage cuts. The strike resulted in a deadly clash between workers and private security, highlighting tensions between labor and industrialists. It marked a significant defeat for organized labor.

Pullman Strikes

A nationwide strike sparked by wage cuts and high rents in the company-owned town of Pullman, Illinois. Led by Eugene V. Debs, the strike disrupted railroads and was violently suppressed by federal troops. It demonstrated growing tensions between labor and government intervention.

 Eugene V. Debs

A labor leader and founder of the American Railway Union who played a key role in the Pullman Strike. Debs later became a prominent socialist, running for president multiple times as a Socialist Party candidate. His activism influenced labor and political reform movements. 

Socialist Party of America

Founded in 1901, it advocated for public ownership of major industries and workers' rights. Led by figures like Eugene V. Debs, the party grew in popularity during the early 20th century. It challenged capitalism but faced suppression during World War I.

 Industrial Workers of the World

A radical labor union founded in 1905 that sought to unite all workers, including unskilled labor, to overthrow capitalism. Known as "Wobblies," the IWW organized strikes and protests across industries. Its militant tactics led to significant victories but also government crackdowns.

Mother Jones

A prominent labor activist and advocate for workers' rights, particularly for miners and children. She organized strikes and protests across the country, earning the nickname "the most dangerous woman in America." Her work brought national attention to labor injustices.

New Immigrants vs. Old Immigrants

Old immigrants (pre-1880s) came mainly from Northern and Western Europe, while new immigrants (post-1880s) came from Southern and Eastern Europe. New immigrants faced more discrimination due to cultural and religious differences. This distinction reflected growing nativism during industrialization.

Push vs. Pull Factors

Push factors are conditions that drive people to leave their home countries, such as poverty or persecution. Pull factors are opportunities in a new country, like jobs or political freedom. These dynamics explain patterns of immigration to the U.S. during the 19th and early 20th centuries.

Ellis Island

Opened in 1892 in New York Harbor, it served as the primary immigration station for European immigrants. Millions passed through its gates, shaping the cultural diversity of the U.S. It symbolizes the promise and challenges of the American Dream.

Angel Island

Located in San Francisco Bay, it processed primarily Asian immigrants, especially Chinese, under stricter scrutiny. Opened in 1910, it reflected discriminatory immigration policies like the Chinese Exclusion Act. Angel Island represents the challenges faced by Asian immigrants in pursuing opportunity in the U.S.

Nativism

 A belief favoring native-born citizens over immigrants, often fueled by fears of cultural and economic displacement. It led to movements like the Know-Nothing Party and policies such as the Chinese Exclusion Act. Nativism reflects the tension between immigration and national identity.

Brooklyn Bridge

Completed in 1883, this iconic suspension bridge connected Manhattan and Brooklyn, symbolizing engineering innovation. It facilitated urban growth and commerce in New York City. The bridge became a landmark of American industrial progress.

Electric Trolley

Introduced in the late 19th century, it revolutionized urban transportation, allowing cities to expand. The trolley made commuting easier and contributed to the growth of suburbs. It reflected the modernization of infrastructure during the Gilded Age.

Dumbbell Tenement

A type of low-cost, densely packed housing designed to accommodate urban immigrants and workers. Common in the late 19th century, they often had poor ventilation and sanitation. These tenements highlighted the challenges of urban overcrowding and poverty.

How the Other Half Lives Jacob Riis

Written by Jacob Riis, this book exposed the harsh living conditions of the urban poor through text and photography. It raised awareness about tenement housing and spurred social reform efforts. Riis's work exemplifies the power of investigative journalism.

 Sweatshops

Small, crowded factories where workers, often immigrants, endured low wages and long hours in poor conditions. Sweatshops were common during industrialization, particularly in the garment industry. They symbolized exploitation in the pursuit of profit.

Political Machine

An organization that controlled city politics through patronage and corruption, often to assist immigrants in exchange for votes. Machines like Tammany Hall wielded significant power during the Gilded Age. They highlight both the benefits and abuses of urban political systems.

Tammany Hall

A powerful political machine in New York City led by figures like Boss Tweed. It helped immigrants integrate into society while engaging in widespread corruption. Tammany Hall exemplifies the interplay of political assistance and exploitation.

Pendleton Civil Service Act (1883)

Legislation that reformed government hiring by requiring merit-based exams for civil service positions. It aimed to curb the patronage system following President Garfield's assassination. The act marked a shift toward professionalized government service.

Settlement Houses

Community centers in urban areas that provided social services and education to immigrants and the poor. Leaders like Jane Addams pioneered this movement with houses such as Hull House. Settlement houses embodied Progressive Era efforts to address poverty.

Social Gospel

A religious movement advocating for social reform based on Christian ethics. It addressed issues like poverty and labor rights during industrialization. The movement influenced Progressive policies and organizations like settlement houses.

Gilded Age

A term coined by Mark Twain to describe the late 19th century, characterized by rapid industrial growth, wealth disparity, and political corruption. The era highlighted both economic progress and social inequality. It set the stage for Progressive reforms.

YMCAs and YWCAs

Organizations founded to provide social, educational, and recreational opportunities for young men and women in urban areas. They promoted moral development and community support. These groups reflect the rise of social welfare during industrialization.

Corporate Capitalism

An economic system dominated by large corporations that drove industrial and financial growth. This system defined the Gilded Age, creating monopolies and expanding consumer markets. It also led to labor unrest and calls for regulation

 “Crisis of Masculinity”

A cultural anxiety during industrialization when traditional male roles were challenged by changes in work and society. Men sought to reaffirm their status through sports, militarism, and fraternal organizations. It reflects the social impact of rapid economic changes.

Wealth of Nations

Written by Adam Smith, this foundational text in economics argued for free-market capitalism and limited government intervention. It influenced industrialists of the Gilded Age. Smith's ideas shaped modern economic policies and debates.

Acres of Diamonds

A lecture by Russell Conwell promoting the idea that wealth could be found through hard work and seizing opportunities at home. It reflected the self-help ethos of the Gilded Age. The message justified economic inequality by emphasizing individual responsibility.

Social Darwinism

A theory applying "survival of the fittest" to human society, justifying economic inequality and laissez-faire capitalism. Popularized by figures like Herbert Spencer, it opposed government intervention in the economy. It shaped attitudes toward poverty and reform during industrialization.

The Gospel of Wealth

 An essay by Andrew Carnegie advocating for the wealthy to use their fortunes for societal good. It emphasized philanthropy over direct aid. Carnegie’s ideas influenced charitable practices among industrialists.

Dynamic Sociology

Written by Lester Frank Ward, it criticized Social Darwinism and argued for active government intervention to address social issues. Ward believed that society could be improved through education and policy. His ideas influenced the Progressive Era.

Progress and Poverty

Henry George's book examining the paradox of wealth and inequality during industrialization. He proposed a "single tax" on land to address poverty. The book sparked widespread debate on economic reform.

Look Backward

Edward Bellamy’s utopian novel depicting a future socialist society that solved industrial capitalism's problems. It inspired reform movements and ideas like cooperative ownership. The book reflected growing discontent with Gilded Age inequality.

NAWSA

Founded in 1890, it united suffragists to advocate for women's right to vote. Leaders like Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton spearheaded the organization. NAWSA played a key role in achieving the 19th Amendment.