final- political perspective

The Rational Model of Voting

This model assumes that individuals vote based on a cost-benefit analysis, weighing the potential benefits of their preferred candidate winning against the effort required to vote. It is closely associated with the idea that voters act in their own self-interest.

The Sociological Model of Voting

This model emphasizes the influence of social groups, such as family, class, religion, and community, on voting behavior. It suggests that individuals vote in alignment with the dominant political preferences of their social environment.

The Michigan Model of Voting

Developed at the University of Michigan, this model focuses on long-term psychological attachment to political parties, known as party identification. It argues that partisanship, shaped by socialization, strongly influences voting decisions over time.

Party Identification/Partisanship:

The psychological attachment individuals have to a political party, influencing their voting behavior and perceptions of political issues. It reflects a voter’s loyalty and often guides their political preferences and choices in elections.

Partisan Dealignment

The process by which voters become less attached to political parties, leading to increased independence in voting behavior and a decline in consistent party loyalty. This shift can result in more unpredictable electoral outcomes and a rise in third-party candidates.

The Funnel of Causality

A framework used in political science to illustrate how various long-term and short-term factors influence voting decisions. It suggests that deep-seated social and psychological factors shape political attitudes, which then interact with campaign events to determine vote choice.

Issue Voting

A voting behavior where individuals base their electoral choices primarily on specific issues or policies rather than party affiliation or candidate characteristics. This approach emphasizes the importance of key political issues in shaping voter preferences.

“Minimal Effects” of Campaigns

The theory that political campaigns have a limited impact on voter behavior and that individuals often maintain their pre-existing political preferences despite campaign efforts.

Mandate vs. Accountability Representation

Mandate representation refers to elected officials acting on the wishes of their constituents, while accountability representation emphasizes the responsibility of officials to be answerable to voters for their actions and decisions.

Electoral Accountability

The concept that elected officials are held responsible for their actions and decisions by voters, influencing their behavior in office and ensuring they act in the public's interest.

Retrospective Voting

A voting theory where voters evaluate candidates based on their past performance in office, often using previous outcomes to inform their choices in elections.

Economic Voting

A theory suggesting that voters make decisions based on the state of the economy, evaluating the performance of incumbents based on economic conditions and outcomes.

Corruption Voting and Crime Voting

The process by which voters consider candidates' records on corruption and crime when making electoral decisions, often impacting their support for incumbents or challengers.

Clarity of Responsibility (Related to Accountability)

A concept in political accountability where voters can easily identify which political actors are responsible for policy outcomes, enabling them to hold them accountable during elections.

Benchmarking (Related to Accountability)

A method where voters assess the performance of political actors by comparing their actions and outcomes to established standards or past performances, aiding in accountability during elections.

Cognitive Biases (Related to Accountability/Economic Voting)

Systematic patterns of deviation from norm or rationality in judgment, affecting voters' decision-making processes during elections.

Institutional Obstacles to Accountability

Barriers within political systems that hinder transparency, responsiveness, and effective oversight, making it difficult for voters to hold political actors accountable.

Ethnic Voting

A voting behavior influenced by a voter's ethnic identity, where individuals may support candidates or parties that represent their ethnic group's interests or demographics.

Cross-Cutting Cleavages (Related to Ethnic Voting)

Social divisions that intersect, such as race, religion, and class, which can influence voting behavior by creating diverse coalitions among different groups.

Patronage Democracies

Political systems where parties distribute government jobs, resources, or services in exchange for political support. This undermines merit-based governance and reinforces clientelistic relationships.

Clientelism

A political strategy where politicians offer material benefits, such as jobs or public services, in exchange for electoral support. It is common in weaker democratic institutions where voters rely on personal networks rather than broad policy commitments.

Valence Voting

A model where voters prioritize non-policy factors, such as candidate competence, integrity, or leadership qualities, rather than ideological positions. It assumes that voters prefer politicians who are generally effective rather than those who align with a specific policy agenda

Immigration Attitudes

Public opinions regarding immigration, shaped by economic, cultural, and political factors. Attitudes can range from support for open borders to restrictive policies based on perceptions of economic impact, security, or national identity.

Labor Market Competition Hypothesis (Related to Immigration Attitudes)

The theory that individuals oppose immigration when they perceive immigrants as economic competitors, particularly in low-skill job markets. It predicts that economic self-interest influences immigration attitudes.

Sociopsychological Approach (Related to Immigration Attitudes)

This perspective argues that immigration attitudes are shaped by psychological and social factors, such as identity, group threat, and cultural concerns, rather than purely economic interests.

Social Identity Theory

A theory that explains how individuals categorize themselves and others into social groups, leading to in-group favoritism and out-group discrimination. It helps explain political behavior, including ethnic voting and immigration attitudes.

Contact Hypothesis

The idea that increased interaction between different social groups reduces prejudice and fosters social cohesion. It suggests that meaningful contact between natives and immigrants can improve attitudes toward immigration.