Anthropology of Death: Cultural Practices, Burial Techniques, and Archaeological Insights

What is cultural relativism in anthropology?

The practice of not projecting our cultural categories and recognizing that all cultures are logical and rational in their own terms.

How is death viewed in anthropological terms?

Death is a biological fact but also a culturally constructed concept; physical death does not equal social death.

What does the term 'social death' refer to?

The idea that an individual's social identity may persist even after physical death.

What is meant by 'death as a process'?

Death is not a single event but a gradual process with no clear moment of death.

How do some cultures view the afterlife?

In cultures like the Kayapo of Brazil, the dead are believed to return as birds, indicating that death is not seen as the end.

What are 'good' and 'bad' deaths?

These terms refer to culturally defined interpretations of death, where some deaths are viewed positively and others negatively.

What is Hertz's concept of the 'intermediary period'?

A transitional phase when an individual is neither fully alive nor fully dead, often requiring specific rituals.

What is secondary burial?

The practice of recovering and re-burial of a corpse after initial mortuary treatment, associated with the individual becoming truly dead.

How does the condition of a corpse relate to the state of the spirit?

The fate of the corpse is linked to the fate of the soul; until the body fully decays, the spirit cannot enter the final world of the dead.

What is the significance of funerary ceremonies?

They reflect the scale of loss to society and serve as a means to reestablish social order after a death.

What does the term 'deathways' refer to?

The socio-psychological functions of death practices in any culture, including how society adjusts roles after a death.

What is the 'liminal period' according to Van Gennep?

A transitional phase between separation from one status and incorporation into another, often marked by ceremonies.

What role does sacrifice play in funerary practices?

Rituals where items must disappear from this world to facilitate the passage into the next, such as burning money or damaging grave goods.

Why is a corpse considered scary to the Berawan people?

Because it represents a tear in the fabric of society and can contaminate the living, especially during the dangerous intermediary period.

What does Victor Turner say about cross-cultural death symbolism?

He emphasizes themes of journey, sex, and rebirth, suggesting that the dead are often seen as 'reborn' into the next world.

What challenges did archaeology face regarding tombs before the 1800s?

Tombs were often looted for valuables, with little interest in human remains or the anthropological significance of graves.

What can graves tell us about prehistoric populations?

Graves provide information on biological aspects such as health and life history, allowing for studies in bioarchaeology.

What is the goal of modern archaeology concerning graves?

To use graves as clues to reconstruct deathways and gain insights into past social organization and beliefs.

What are some contemporary archaeology questions regarding graves?

Questions include the order of items in graves, the social groups involved in burial, and how burial rites express social aspects.

What is the significance of the phrase 'king is dead, long live the king'?

It illustrates the transition of roles and the reestablishment of social order following a death.

How do funerary ceremonies resemble other life events?

They share a parallel structure with birth and marriage ceremonies, marking transitions in social status.

What does the reunion of bones symbolize?

It represents the lying social order, where the society of the dead parallels the society of the living.

What is the role of the intermediary period in death practices?

It is seen as a dangerous time when the spirit is not yet fully transitioned, requiring appeasement and care from the living.

What is the primary goal of systematic excavation?

To carefully record all spatial-position associations and relationships.

What does 'in situ' mean in the context of excavation?

It refers to exposing and recording things in their original context.

What are some cutting-edge techniques used in excavation?

Soil micromorphology, archaeo-entomology, and gut contents analysis.

What can soil micromorphology reveal about a burial?

It can provide information about the season of burial, weather during the funeral, and unpreserved grave goods.

What does archaeo-entomology study in relation to burial sites?

It studies insect remains to determine the season of death and the length of time the body was exposed to air.

How does preservation generally correlate with environmental factors?

Preservation is generally better in conditions that inhibit decomposition, such as cold, wet, dry, or anaerobic environments.

What are the most durable remains found in graves?

Bones are very durable, with teeth being the last to decay.

What are examples of factors that can improve preservation?

Ice, water-logged sites, dry areas, and anaerobic conditions.

What is differential preservation?

It refers to the varying preservation rates of different materials, such as bog bodies preserving leather better than linen.

What is decay analysis used for in archaeology?

To reconstruct burial activities by understanding how things decompose in the grave.

What does the 'wall effect' refer to in decay analysis?

It describes how bones appear packed and precariously balanced in tight spaces like coffins.

What is the significance of secondary empty spaces in graves?

They provide evidence for perishable grave goods that have decayed.

What were the findings at the Ban Lum Khao site regarding burial practices?

Males were buried with higher value grave goods and 83% were wrapped, while 55% of females had wealthier burial treatments.

What does the summary 'dead don't bury themselves' imply in archaeology?

It emphasizes the need to 'interrogate' graves to reconstruct deathways and understand burial practices.

What historical issue does colonialist archaeology address?

It involves treating the dead of non-Western populations as scientific specimens, which has caused violence to indigenous peoples.

What does NAGPRA stand for and what does it regulate?

Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act; it gives tribes authority over human remains excavated on federal and state lands.

What was the controversy surrounding the African American burial site discovered in New York?

There were no plans to memorialize the site, despite its historical significance as an early African-American burial ground.

What role did Prof. Micheal Blakely play in the excavation of the African American burial site?

He assembled a team of black scholars and students to study the identities and backgrounds of those buried there.

What is the current American position on the excavation of archaeological dead?

There is a horror of death and a view that displaying or investigating archaeological dead is disrespectful.

How can archaeology acknowledge and repair its colonial past?

By reconsidering how and when to engage with the dead and avoiding excavating non-Western burials.

How long was slavery a central part of life in New York?

For 200 years.

What was established in the 1650s near a pond in New York?

A cemetery in an area of Black land ownership.

When was the cemetery closed?

In 1793.

How many burials may have occurred in the cemetery before it was closed?

Approximately 15,000 burials.

What common burial practice was observed among the graves?

Cobble outlining of graves, common in the African Diaspora.

What types of populations were buried in the cemetery?

Enslaved people from Africa, the Caribbean, southern colonies, and local individuals.

What was the typical burial treatment for the deceased?

Simple burial treatment, often in work clothes.

What unique dental practice was noted among the deceased?

Teeth were filed into different shapes, a common practice in Africa.

What items were sometimes buried with the deceased?

Beads around the waist, decorative cuff links, and coins.

What does the uniformity in deathways suggest about the community?

It indicates a close-knit community despite diverse origins.

What do distinct deathways reveal about African heritage?

They show ties to African heritage and draw on diverse traditions in cultural remembrance.

What role do Black cemeteries play in society?

They serve as centers for social memory and community cohesion.

What happened to many graves of enslaved people and their descendants?

They were often unmarked and razed by development projects.

What is one goal of Black cemetery projects?

To create places for memorial and commemoration.

What significant archaeological discovery did Leonard Woolley make in Ur?

He discovered 'Death Pits' containing 16 royal tombs.

What time period do the royal tombs at Ur date back to?

2700-2350 BCE.

What was included in the first phase of funerals at Ur?

Construction of the death pit, digging burial pits, and filling tomb chambers with grave goods.

What types of grave goods were found in the tombs?

Costly gold and silver vessels, silver boat models, and human sacrifices.

What was the purpose of the human sacrifices found in the Death Pits?

They were assumed to be personal attendants to the king or queen.

What was the significance of Queen Puabi's burial?

She was buried with elaborate jewelry, cylinder seals, and a set of female attendants.

What insights can be gained from studying burial practices in Ur?

They reveal social hierarchies, rituals, and the importance of grave goods in the afterlife journey.

What does the term 'Tableau mort' refer to in Sumerian funerary practices?

An image created with the dead, staging a scene as if the deceased were participating in a banquet.

What was the Sumerian belief about the afterlife?

All souls, regardless of status, go to the same afterlife ruled by Ereshkigal.

What was the purpose of grave goods in Sumerian burials?

To provide for the deceased on their journey to the Netherworld.

How did commoner burials differ from elite burials in Ur?

Commoners were often buried in pits with fewer grave goods, while elites had elaborate tombs and offerings.

What was the significance of clothing and adornments in Sumerian burials?

They expressed social rank and identity, with elaborate dress indicating higher status.

What does the presence of food remains in graves suggest?

It indicates funerary feasting and the importance of food offerings in burial rituals.

What was the relationship between the living and the dead in Sumerian culture?

The living had obligations to the dead, including proper burials and rituals to ensure their peace in the afterlife.