Psychology: Key Concepts, Perspectives, and Brain Structures

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Behavioral Category

Focuses on observable actions and how we learn through rewards, punishments, and environment.

Cognitive Category

How we think, interpret, remember, learn, and solve problems.

Affective/Emotional Category

Involves feelings, motivations, emotions, and mood states.

Behavioral Perspective

Behavior is learned through reinforcement, punishment, and observation.

Psychoanalytic Perspective

Behavior is driven by unconscious thoughts, conflicts, and childhood experiences (Freud).

Humanistic Perspective

People have free will and strive for personal growth, self-esteem, and potential.

Cognitive Perspective

Focuses on mental processes: thinking, memory, language, decision-making.

Biological Perspective

Behavior is influenced by brain structure, neurotransmitters, genetics.

Evolutionary Perspective

Traits and behaviors develop to enhance survival and reproduction.

Sociocultural Perspective

Behavior is shaped by societal norms, culture, family, and social context.

Scientific Method

A systematic process used to gather data and test hypotheses.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction.

Experimental Method

Research approach that identifies cause & effect by manipulating variables.

Independent Variable (IV)

The factor the researcher manipulates.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The outcome measured to see if the IV caused change.

Blind Study

Participants do not know which group they are in.

Double-Blind Study

Neither participants nor researchers know the groups, reducing bias.

Descriptive Method

Research that describes behavior without showing cause/effect.

Case Study

In-depth study of one person or small group.

Naturalistic Observation

Watching behavior in its natural environment.

Survey

Questions used to gather large amounts of data quickly.

Correlation

A relationship or connection between two variables.

Correlation Coefficient

Numerical measure of correlation strength (ranges −1 to +1).

Correlation ≠ Causation

Even if events occur together, one does not necessarily cause the other.

Neuron

Nerve cell that sends and receives messages.

Dendrites

Branch-like extensions that receive signals.

Soma (Cell Body)

Contains nucleus; processes information.

Axon

Long fiber that carries the neural message away from cell body.

Myelin Sheath

Fatty coating that speeds up neural impulses.

Axon Terminals

Ends of axon that release neurotransmitters.

Synapse

Space between neurons where messages pass chemically.

Serotonin

Mood, sleep, hunger (low levels linked to depression).

Dopamine

Pleasure, reward, movement (high = schizophrenia; low = Parkinson's).

Acetylcholine

Memory, learning, muscle movement.

Endorphins

Natural painkillers that produce euphoria.

Norepinephrine

Alertness and arousal, fight-or-flight response.

Prenatal Development

Growth from conception to birth.

Germinal Stage

First 2 weeks after conception; rapid cell division.

Embryonic Stage

2-8 weeks; major organs form.

Fetal Stage

9 weeks to birth; growth and maturation of systems.

Sensation

Detecting and inputting stimuli from the environment.

Perception

Interpreting sensory information in the brain.

Transduction

Converting physical stimuli into neural signals.

Sensory Adaptation

Decreased sensitivity after constant exposure.

Lobes of the Brain

Four major brain regions responsible for different functions.

Frontal Lobe

Decision-making, planning, personality.

Parietal Lobe

Sensory information — touch, pain, temperature.

Temporal Lobe

Hearing, language comprehension.

Occipital Lobe

Vision and visual processing.

Corpus Callosum

Connects left and right hemispheres for communication.

Circadian Rhythms

24-hour biological sleep-wake cycles.

Sleep Disorders

Problems with sleep such as insomnia or apnea.

Drug Tolerance

Needing more of a drug to produce the same effect.

Learning

A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience.

Classical Conditioning

Learning by association (Pavlov) — stimuli become linked.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

Naturally triggers a response.

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

Natural automatic reaction.

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

Stimulus with no initial effect.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

Previously neutral, now triggers learned response.

Conditioned Response (CR)

Learned reaction to conditioned stimulus.

Operant Conditioning

Learning through reinforcement and punishment (Skinner).

Observational Learning

Learning by watching others (Bandura).

Positive Reinforcement

Add something good to increase behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

Remove something bad to increase behavior.

Positive Punishment

Add something unpleasant to decrease behavior.

Negative Punishment

Remove something pleasant to decrease behavior.

Memory

The process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information.

Sensory Memory

Immediate, short record of sensory information.

Short-Term/Working Memory

Holds small amounts temporarily for use.

Long-Term Memory

Permanent storage of information.

Episodic Memory

Personal life events and experiences.

Semantic Memory

Facts and general knowledge.

Procedural Memory

Skills and habits (how to do things).

Amnesia

Loss of memory due to injury or trauma.

Intelligence

Ability to learn, solve problems, and adapt.

Problem-Solving

Mental process of finding solutions.

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts to make decisions quicker.

Algorithms

Step-by-step logical method that guarantees a solution.

Mental Set

Tendency to approach problems the same old way.

Functional Fixedness

Inability to see new uses for objects.

Emotion

A state involving physiological arousal & subjective feelings.

Universal Emotions

Basic emotions shared across cultures: joy, anger, fear, sadness, disgust, surprise.

Motivation

A need or desire that energizes behavior.

Intrinsic Motivation

Doing something for internal satisfaction.

Extrinsic Motivation

Doing something for reward or punishment.

Eating Disorders

Serious disruptions in eating behavior.

Maslow's Hierarchy

Levels of needs from survival → self-actualization.

Stress

Response to perceived threat or challenge.

Health Psychology

Study of how mind and body interact in health.

Type A Personality

Competitive, impatient, high-stress risk.

GAS (General Adaptation Syndrome)

3-stage stress response: alarm → resistance → exhaustion.

Psychoanalytic Theory

Unconscious forces shape behavior.

Id

Pleasure seeker, impulsive desires.

Ego

Reality-based decision maker.

Superego

Moral conscience.

Psychosexual Stages

Freud's childhood development stages.

Defense Mechanisms

Strategies the ego uses to reduce anxiety.

Carl Jung

Proposed collective unconscious and archetypes.

Erik Erikson

Developed 8 psychosocial stages across lifespan.