the brain

Brain lesioning

Involves disrupting or damaging the normal structure or function of a part of the brain, studying the effects of existing damage.

Brain ablation

The destruction and surgical removal of a region of brain tissue.

Hindbrain

Includes structures such as the cerebellum, medulla, and pons.

Cerebellum

Responsible for coordinating voluntary movements and plays a key role in balance, posture, and motor learning.

Medulla

Controls heart rate, breathing, blood pressure, and swallowing, with damage potentially life-threatening.

Pons

Regulates sleep, dreaming, arousal, and coordinates movement.

Midbrain

Contains structures such as the reticular formation and substantia nigra.

Reticular Formation

Helps regulate levels of alertness and consciousness and filters incoming sensory information.

Substantia Nigra

Involved in control of voluntary movement and dopamine production; degeneration is linked to Parkinson’s disease.

Forebrain

Comprises structures like the hypothalamus, thalamus, and cerebrum.

Hypothalamus

Maintains the body’s internal balance (homeostasis) by regulating temperature, hunger, thirst, sleep, and hormones.

Thalamus

Acts as a relay station for most sensory information (except smell), directing it to the appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex.

Cerebrum

The largest part of the brain responsible for higher-order cognitive processes such as decision-making and voluntary movement.

Frontal lobe

Involved in reasoning, problem solving, personality, and contains the primary motor cortex and prefrontal cortex and broca’s area.

Primary motor cortex

Controls motor movements, with areas devoted to more complex movements receiving greater cortical space.

Prefrontal cortex

Responsible for reasoning, problem solving, and personality traits.

Broca’s area

Located in the left hemisphere, responsible for the production of fluent speech.

Parietal lobe

Processes sensory information from the skin and body parts, responsible for spatial awareness and perception of touch.

Primary Somatosensory Cortex

Receives and processes sensory information, with more sensitive areas getting more cortical space.

Occipital lobe

Processes visual information received from the eyes and is involved in the interpretation of visual stimuli.

Primary Visual Cortex

Specialized in processing visual information, such as shapes, colors, and motion.

Temporal lobe

Responsible for processing auditory information, memory and recognising faces and objects. Includes Wernicke’s area for language comprehension.

Primary Auditory Cortex

Processes sounds from both ears and interprets pitch, volume, and rhythm.

Wernicke’s Area

Located in the left hemisphere, involved in the comprehension of spoken and written language.

Left Hemisphere

Specialized for language, logical thinking, math, and controls the right side of the body.

Right Hemisphere

Specializes in spatial and visual thinking, creativity, and facial recognition, controlling the left side of the body.

Frontal Lobe Injury

Can cause personality changes, difficulties with planning or decision-making, and impaired movement.

Parietal Lobe Injury

Can result in loss of sensation and spatial neglect (especially left neglect from right hemisphere damage).

Occipital Lobe Injury

Can lead to vision problems or blindness.

Temporal Lobe Injury

Can cause memory loss and the inability to understand speech (Wernicke’s aphasia).

Developmental Plasticity

Normal brain development involving myelination, synaptogenesis, and synaptic pruning.

Myelination

Coating axons with myelin to enhance transmission speed.

Synaptogenesis

The formation of new synapses between neurons during developmental plasticity

Synaptic Pruning

The removal of unused or weak synaptic connections during brain development.

Adaptive Plasticity

The brain’s ability to adapt after injury through mechanisms like sprouting and rerouting.

Sprouting

The growth of new dendrites and axons to form new connections following brain injury.

Rerouting

Neurons finding new pathways to restore function after injury.

CT (Computed Tomography)

A structural imaging technique that uses X-ray technology to create cross-sectional images of the brain.

MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

A structural imaging technique that uses magnetic fields to produce detailed images of the brain.

fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

A functional imaging technique that measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood oxygen levels.

PET (Positron Emission Tomography)

A functional imaging technique that uses a radioactive glucose tracer to map brain activity based on metabolic activity.

Mental stimulation

Activities such as puzzles and strategy games that can help maximize brain function.

Physical activity

Exercises such as running and high-intensity interval training that boost oxygen and blood flow to the brain.

Healthy diet

Eating foods rich in Omega-3 fatty acids, such as salmon and chia seeds, beneficial for brain health.

Social support

Engaging with friends and community to enhance mental health and brain function.

Parkinson's Disease

A neurological disorder caused by the degeneration of neurons in the substantia nigra, leading to reduced dopamine production.

Symptoms of Parkinson's Disease

Include tremors, muscle rigidity, slowed movement (bradykinesia), and postural instability.

Levodopa

A treatment for Parkinson's that converts into dopamine in the brain.

DBS (Deep Brain Stimulation)

Treatment that involves implanting electrodes to stimulate motor areas of the brain.

Gut-brain axis treatments

Treatments involving pre/probiotics to enhance brain function in patients with Parkinson’s.

Epilepsy

A neurological disorder characterized by focal and generalized seizures.

Anticonvulsant medication

A common treatment for managing epilepsy symptoms.

Vagus nerve stimulation

A treatment for epilepsy that involves stimulating the vagus nerve to reduce seizures.

Ketogenic diet

A dietary approach that may help reduce seizures in patients with epilepsy.

Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE)

A neurological condition caused by repeated head trauma, often found in contact sports participants.

Symptoms of CTE

Include memory loss, mood swings, depression, and aggression.

Diagnosis of CTE

Confirmed by autopsy

Neuron

The basic structural and functional unit of the nervous system.

Dendrites

Parts of the neuron that receive messages from other neurons or sensory receptors.

Soma (cell body)

The part of the neuron that processes information.

Axon

The part of the neuron that transmits messages to other neurons.

Myelin sheath

A layer that insulates the axon and speeds up message transmission.

Axon terminals

The end parts of a neuron where neurotransmitters are released to communicate with other neurons.

Communication process of neurons

Involves the action potential traveling down the axon, neurotransmitter release into the synapse, and binding to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron.

Advantages of CT scan

Fast and widely accessible. Useful for detecting strokes, tumors, and bleeding

Disadvantages of CT scan

Involves radiation exposure. Lower image resolution compared to MRI

Advantages of MRI

High-resolution imaging of brain structures. No radiation involved

Disadvantages of MRI

More expensive and time-consuming than CT. Not safe for patients with metal implants or pacemakers

Advantages of fMRI

Shows both brain structure and function. High spatial resolution to pinpoint active brain regions

Disadvantages of fMRI

Poor temporal resolution (slight delay in activity detection). Sensitive to head movement and costly

Advantages of PET

Detects functional changes before structural changes appear. Useful for identifying disorders like Alzheimer's and epilepsy

Disadvantages of PET

Involves radiation exposure. Lower resolution than fMRI and more invasive

CT scan

uses X-ray technology to create cross-sectional images of the brain.

MRI scan

uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce highly detailed images of the brain.

fMRI scan

measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood oxygen levels

PET scan

uses a radioactive glucose tracer to map brain activity based on metabolic activity.

Parkinsons

loss of neurons responsible for the production of dopamine

Epilepsy

abnormal electrical activity occuring in the brain

CTE

Neurodegenerative disorder that occurs from repeated severe head injuries/trauma