Psychology Foundations and Research Methods

These flashcards cover key concepts, definitions, and terminology from the lecture on psychology, providing a comprehensive review for exam preparation.

Scientific Attitude

Consists of curiosity (asking questions), skepticism (testing past conclusions), and humility (understanding vulnerability).

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe that an event was predictable after it has already happened.

Overconfidence

Being more confident in an answer than factually correct.

Theory vs. Hypothesis

A theory organizes observations to predict behavior, while a hypothesis is a testable and falsifiable prediction.

Operational Definition

A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures in a study, allowing for replication.

Replication

Repeating a study to prove or disprove the original claims, establishing reliability.

Case Study

A non-experimental, in-depth study of one or more people that can reveal insights but may be misleading if the subjects are atypical.

Correlational Research

Describes statistical relationships between variables but cannot establish cause and effect.

Third Variable Problem

An unknown variable that affects correlation data, which can only be eliminated through the experimental method.

Illusory Correlation

Imagining a relationship between two completely unrelated events, often fueled by confirmation bias.

Experimental Method

Establishes cause and effect by exposing an experimental group to a treatment and comparing it to a control group.

Random Assignment

Randomly assigning people to conditions so all groups have relatively equal characteristics.

Independent vs. Dependent Variable

The independent variable is manipulated by the researcher, while the dependent variable is the measured outcome.

Confounding Variable

An outside factor that may influence the results of a study.

Double-Blind Study

An experiment where both the participants and the researchers are unaware of who is receiving the treatment.

Placebo Effect

Behavioral effects caused by the administration of an inert substance thought to be active.

Measures of Central Tendency

The mean is the average, the median is the middle score, and the mode is the most frequently occurring score.

Standard Deviation

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean, which is less deceptive than the range.

Statistical Significance

A statement of how likely it is that an observed result occurred by chance.

Behavioral Genetics vs. Evolutionary Psychology

Behavioral genetics looks at how genes and environment shape behavior, while evolutionary psychology examines how natural selection shapes universal traits.

Epigenetics

The study of how environmental factors and life experiences alter gene expression without changing the DNA itself.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Made up of the brain and spinal cord, acting as the body's decision-maker.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Gathers information and transmits CNS decisions to the rest of the body.

Sympathetic vs. Parasympathetic

The sympathetic division arouses the body and expends energy, while the parasympathetic division calms the body and conserves energy.

Sensory vs. Motor Neurons

Sensory (afferent) neurons send info from tissues to the brain, while motor (efferent) neurons send info from the brain to muscles.

Interneurons

Process information between sensory inputs and motor outputs in the CNS.

Glial Cells

Support neurons by providing nutrients, forming myelin, and cleaning up waste.

Synaptic Transmission

A presynaptic neuron releases neurotransmitters across the synaptic gap, binding to specific receptor sites on the postsynaptic neuron.

Reuptake

The process where excess neurotransmitters are broken down by enzymes or reabsorbed by the sending neuron.

Agonist vs. Antagonist

Agonist drugs increase a neurotransmitter's action, while antagonist drugs inhibit it.

Dual Processing

The idea that the brain works on two levels of thought (conscious and unconscious) at the same time.

Circadian Rhythm

Our natural sleep cycle that responds to light and regulates body temperature.

Sensation vs. Perception

Sensation is receiving stimuli through receptor cells; perception is organizing and interpreting that sensory information.

Bottom-Up Processing

Sensing basic features of stimuli and integrating them to recognize patterns.

Top-Down Processing

Using previous experiences and expectations to interpret sensory information.

Absolute vs. Difference Thresholds

The absolute threshold is the minimum stimulus needed for detection; the difference threshold is the minimum change required to notice a difference.

Weber's Law

States that to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage.

Sensory Adaptation

Reduces sensitivity to constant, unchanging stimuli.

Visual Anatomy

Light passes through the cornea and pupil, gets focused by the lens, and hits the retina, where rods and cones convert it to electrical signals.

Color Vision Theories

The Trichromatic theory occurs in the retina (red, green, blue cones), while the Opponent-Process theory occurs in the brain.

Hearing Anatomy

Sound waves vibrate the eardrum and transmit vibrations to the fluid-filled cochlea.

Binocular Depth Cues

Rely on two eyes, such as retinal disparity and convergence.

Monocular Depth Cues

Rely on one eye and include linear perspective, relative size, interposition, and texture gradient.

Perceptual Constancies

Perceiving familiar objects as having constant shape, size, and color despite changes in distance or lighting.

Gestalt Principles

Grouping principles including proximity, similarity, continuity, and closure.

Touch & Pain

Involves pressure, temperature, and pain governed by the Gate-Control Theory.

Body Position Senses

Kinesthesis senses body position; the vestibular system maintains balance.

Reflex vs. Instinct vs. Learning

A reflex is an automatic response, an instinct is an unlearned complex behavior, and learning is a change resulting from experience.

Classical Conditioning

Associating two stimuli to produce an involuntary, automatic response.

Extinction

Diminishing of a conditioned response when repeated without the unconditioned stimulus.

Stimulus Generalization

Responding to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus.

Operant Conditioning

Associating a voluntary behavior with a consequence occurring after the behavior.

Thorndike's Law of Effect

Behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely.

Positive vs. Negative Reinforcement

Positive reinforcement adds a desirable stimulus; negative reinforcement removes an unpleasant stimulus.

Shaping

An operant conditioning procedure where reinforcers guide behavior toward closer approximations of a desired goal.

Schedules of Reinforcement

Continuous reinforcement leads to fast learning; partial reinforcement leads to greater resistance to extinction.

Three-Stage Memory Model

Information flows from sensory input to short-term memory and into long-term memory.

Working Memory

The conscious processing of incoming sensory info and retrieved info from long-term memory.

Encoding Strategies

Includes chunking and mnemonics.

Spacing Effect

We retain information better when encoding is distributed over time.

Memory Storage Sites

Explicit memories use the frontal lobe and hippocampus, implicit memories use the cerebellum and basal ganglia.

Context and State-Dependent Memory

Recall is improved when external or internal conditions match the conditions during encoding.

Retrieval Failure

The inability to access stored information.

Algorithms vs. Heuristics

Algorithms guarantee a solution; heuristics are faster shortcuts prone to bias.

Language Structure

Made up of phonemes and morphemes.

Critical Period for Language

Children are linguistic geniuses until age 7, after which the ability to learn another language declines.

Theories of Intelligence

Range from Spearman's General Intelligence to Gardner's Multiple Intelligences and Sternberg's Triarchic Theory.

Test Standardization

Administering and scoring a test in a consistent manner.

Reliability vs. Validity

Reliability is consistency of results; validity is the extent to which a test measures what it claims.

Continuous vs. Discontinuous Development

Development viewed as a gradual process or as happening in distinct stages.

Cross-Sectional vs. Longitudinal Studies

Cross-sectional compares different ages simultaneously; longitudinal follows the same people over a long period.

Teratogens

Agents like alcohol that cause defects during a critical period.

Infant Reflexes

Innate behaviors suited for survival, such as the rooting and sucking reflexes.

Attachment

An emotional tie shown by seeking closeness to a caregiver.

Ainsworth's Strange Situation

Identifies attachment styles such as Secure and Insecure.

Parenting Styles (Baumrind)

Categorized into Authoritative, Authoritarian, Permissive, and Neglectful.

Identity Statuses (Marcia)

Navigated through diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium, and achievement.

Sex vs. Gender

Sex is biological; gender involves socially influenced characteristics.

Motivation

A desire that energizes and directs behavior.

Hunger Hormones

Ghrelin sends hunger signals; leptin decreases hunger and increases metabolism.

Theories of Emotion

James-Lange says arousal precedes emotion; Cannon-Bard says they are simultaneous; Two-Factor theory states emotion requires physical arousal and cognitive labeling.

Display Rules

Cultural norms dictating emotional expression.

Facial-Feedback Hypothesis

Facial muscle states trigger corresponding feelings.

Freud's Personality Structure

Divided into the Id, Ego, and Superego.

Humanistic Perspective

Focuses on personal growth, self-determination, and unconditional positive regard.

Big Five Personality Traits

Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, Neuroticism, Openness, and Extraversion.

Reciprocal Determinism

The interaction of behavior, internal cognition, and the environment.

Attribution Theory

Examines how we explain behaviors using internal or external attributions.

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to overestimate personal disposition and underestimate the situation in others' behavior.

Prejudice vs. Discrimination

Prejudice is a negative attitude; discrimination is a negative behavior.

Implicit vs. Explicit Bias

Implicit bias involves unconscious associations; explicit bias involves conscious beliefs.

Central vs. Peripheral Persuasion

Central relies on facts; peripheral relies on emotional connection.

Cognitive Dissonance

Mental tension when our attitudes and behaviors do not match.

Conformity (Asch)

Adjusting behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.

Obedience (Milgram)

Complying with direct orders, highest when authority is close.

Social Loafing vs. Facilitation

Social facilitation is improved performance; social loafing is exerting less effort when in a group.

Deindividuation

Loss of self-restraint and self-awareness in groups providing anonymity.