Chapter 22, 23, 24

Napoleon III

* cunning and clever politician who was well-versed in the powers that drive society - won the support of the french people


* **National Assembly rejected Napoleon’s bid to revise the constitution.**
* **Gov’t power was seized with troops** by force in December **1851**
* elected President (10 years)
* After 1 year he requests to restore the Empire - 1852
* The disastrous military defeat at the hands of Prussia in 1870-71 brought the end of Napoleon III’s liberalized government

The Second Napoleonic Era

* Authoritarian Gov’t
* **Military, Police, Legislation, and Civil Service** were all controlled by Napoleon III
* He was given the sole power to introduce legislation and declare war
* Legislative Corps - elected every 6 years by universal male suffrage but could not initiate legislation and had no budget

Year 1-5 of Napoleon III’s reign

* very successful
* **Economic prosperity** - worldwide economy boom. Focused on industrial growth.
* **Stimulus Programs**: government-subsidized railroads, canals, harbors, roads
* Better housing, free hospitals/medicine for working class (to reduce tension and improve social welfare)

Reconstruction of Paris

* Baron Georges-Eugene Haussman - head of massive urban renewal programs
* medieval Paris was destroyed a replaced with broader streets, public squares, underground sewage, public water supply, and gas lights
* Wider streets would make the creation of barricades more difficult, giving a military reason for the reconstruction as well.

Decline of Napoleon III

* **1860s opposition** prompted Napoleon III to liberalize his regime
* **Legalize trade unions + right to strike**
* Legislative Corps - **allowed opposition more freedom to campaign** and gave the legislative corp **more say in state affairs** including more **power in the creation of law/budget**
* **1870s Plebiscite** (direct vote of all members of an electorate concerning large issues) - large majority **support empire over parliamentary supremacy**
* **Franco-Prussian War - in 1870 ends Napoleon III’s regime**

Decline of the Ottomans

* By **1699** they had lost: Hungary, Transylvania, Croatia, and Slovenia to Austria
* In **1774** the Ottomans held not only **Turkey** but also much of **Eastern Europe and Egypt**
* Between **1774 and 1830 they lose Crimea**
* **Russia** seized **Crimea** in **1783** and **Bessarabia** in **1812**
* **Serbia** (**1817**) and **Greece** (**1830**) gained **independence**
* Russians gained protectorate over the Danubian provinces of Moldavia and Wallachia in **1829**
* Between **1830 and 1878 they lose parts of Greece, Eastern European areas around the Mediterranean, and territory in north Africa**
* Between **1878 and 1914 they lose Egypt and the rest of Eastern Europe**
* After **1914 the Ottomans have territory from Constantinople to Yemen, having lost basically all its European territory**.

European motives in collapse of the ottomans

* **Russia** and **Austria wanted land**
* **Britain and France wants naval bases, new trade, and opportunities** (previously blocked by Ottomans)

The Crimean War

(1854-1856)

* Russia demanded the **right to protect Christian shrines in Palestine** that had been extended to the French
* The Ottomans refused and so the **Russians invaded Moldavia and Wallachia**
* **The Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia** in **1853** followed by **GB** and **France** in **1854** (who feared Russia expanding by seizing Ottoman territory of the Dardanelles and becoming the major power in Eastern Europe + Napoleon III felt the Russians had insulted France)
* Britain, France, Turkey, and Sardinia vs. Russia
* Austria remained neutral

Crimean War - resolution

* British and French attacked the Crimean peninsula in a long siege that resulted in the fall of the main Russian fortress of Sevastopol
* Alexander II, the successor of Nicholas I, sued for peace and the Treaty of Paris in 1856 forced Russia to give up Bessarabia at the mouth of the Danube and accept the neutrality of the Black Sea. + Moldavia and Wallachia were placed under the protection of all five great powers.

Lord Tennyson

* poet
* “The Charge of the Light Brigade”
* abt the Crimean War

Florence Nightingale

(1820-1910)

* became famous to help wounded British soldiers who were dying of Cholera and Typhoid - **founder of modern nursing**
* **Disease** had the highest death rate in the war

Results of the Crimean war

* **broke up the Concert of Europe**
* Austria and Russia were now **enemies**
* Russia withdrew from European affairs for the next **20 years**

National Unification of Italy

* began in 1861 with the unification of the peninsula under the House of Savoy (Piedmont-Sardinia) into the Kingdom of Italy. Italy incorporated Venetia and former Papal States (including Rome) by 1871 following the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871)
* Napoleon III forms alliance w/ Piedmont, 1858 to drive Austrians out of Italy
* Upper Italy added Lombardy, Venetia, Parka, Modena, and part of the Papal States to its territory
* War w/ Austria starts with Cavour’s provocation (1859)
* Piedmont only received Lombardy as a result of the Napoleon III’s decision to cede


* **Northern Italian states held plebiscites in 1859 and 1860** - voted to **join the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia**, a major step towards unification, while Piedmont-Sardinia **ceded Savoy and Nice to France**
* Kingdom of Italy (1861) subordinated under Piedmont and King Victor Emmanuel II (1861-1878)

Giuseppe Garibaldi

* **(1807-1882)**
* Successfully i**nvades Sicily** where a revolt had broke out against the Bourbon king of the Two Sicilies - by the end of **1860** most of Sicily was under his control. Moved onto mainland Italy where Naples fell
* In response Cavour and the Piedmontese army invaded the Papal State and moved into the kingdom of Naples in order to stop Garibaldi from angering France
* Garibaldi surrendered and plebiscites in the Papal States and kingdom of Two Sicilies resulted in overwhelming support for union with Piedmont

Annexation of Italian Territories

* **Annexation of Venetia (1866)**
* came as a result of the Austro-Prussian War of 1866
* **Annexation of Rome (1870)**
* came as a result of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870
* Rome became the new capital of the united Italian State

The Red Shirts

also called the Red Coats (Garibaldini) who were volunteers following Giuseppe Garibaldi during his campaign.

Italy pre-unification

* **1850** **Austria is still the dominant power in the region**
* **Royal House of Savoy**
* Rules: Piedmont and Sardinia
* Piedmont was the focus of unification advocates
* Despite **King Charles Albert**’s defeat by Austria (**1848-1849**) of Piedmont leads the independence movement

King Victor Emmanuel II

King of the Savoy

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(1849-1878)

Count Camillo di Cavour

1810-1861

* **liberal minded noble** who favored a constitutional government.
* pursued policies of **economic expansion** and encouraging the building of roads, canals, and railroads.
* Piedmont economy increases and the money is used to **equip a large army**

Zollverein

* (**German customs union**) (**1834**)
* **Stimulated trade** (eliminated tolls on rivers/roads)
* By **1853**, **all Germanic states except Austria joined the Zollverein**

New Constitution in Prussia (1848)

* created a bicameral legislature with a lower house elected by universal male suffrage (people who payed the most taxes still got the most seats) it had the power of taxation but the king still held the most executive power


* The voting system gave much of the legislative power to the middle class who were growing as a result of industrialization

William I

(1861-1888) takes over in Prussia

* plan to **double the size of army** and 3 years compulsory service (many disagreed)
* Middle class liberals in parliament feared compulsory military service so it rejected the new military budget in 1862

Otto Von Bismarck

* (**1815-1898**) appointed by William I as prime minister
* **Junker**, well educated
* **Realpolitik (opportunist)**
* Politics based on practical objectives rather than on ideals
* Resubmitted the army appropriation bill in 1862 to parliament where it was rejected again. Bismarck collected taxes himself and reorganized the army and governed Prussia largely ignoring parliament from 1862-1866.

Danish War (1864)

* arose over the **Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein** cause the Danish gov had tried to incorporated the territories into Denmark in **1863**
* The Diet of the Germanic Confederate wanted to send troops of its member states against Denmark but Bismarck instead persuaded **Austria to join Prussia in declaring war on Denmark in 1864**
* Danes were quickly defeated and Schleswig went to Prussia while Holstein went to Austria
* Bismarck’s long term plan is to isolate Austria

New constitution for the North German Confederation

* each German state kept its own l**ocal gov** but the **King of Prussia was the head of the confederation and the chancellor (Bismarck) was responsible directly to the king**
* King **controlled the army and foreign policy**
* Parliament consisted of two bodies: the Bundesrat composed of delegates nominated by the states, and a lower house, the Reichstag, elected by universal male suffrage

What started the Franco-Prussian War?

* (**1866) Prussia dominates**: all of northern Germany while Austria excluded from all German affairs
* France still held firm that a **unified Germany = bad**
* **Spanish throne deposed** (revolution)
* Goodbye **Queen Isabella II**
* Crown offered to **Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen** (related to Hohenzollern king of Prussia)
* **France objected** which caused **King William I** to force his relative to withdraw his candidacy
* French pushed William I to write a formal apology but Bismarck **edited a telegram** from the king informing him of the French’s request to be more offensive to the French so that they would declare war in **1870**

Franco-Prussian War

* **Southern German states joined with Prussia** against France and the armies advanced into France and **captured an entire French army and Napoleon II at Sedan in September.**
* **The Second French Empire collapsed** and a **treaty was signed in 1871** which made France pay 5 billion francs and give up the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine to the new German state.
* In **January 1871**, William I was proclaimed **kaiser/emperor of the Second German Empire** (at Versailles)

Austria in the 1850s

* In **1851** the **revolutionary constitutions were abolished** and a system of centralized **autocracy** was imposed on the empire
* The only lasting result of the revolution of 1848 was the **act of emancipation of September 1848** which **freed serfs and eliminated all compulsory labor services** in Austria
* **Industrialization after 1850** in Vienna, Bohemia, and Galicia formed a new urban proletariat, labor unrest, and a new industrial middle class

Alexander von Bach

* **(1813-1893)** lead many changes in Austria
* local privileges were subordinate to a **unified system of administration, law, and taxation implemented by German-speaking officials**
* **Hungary was subject to the rule of military officers**
* The **Catholic church was declared the state church** and given control of education.

Emperor Francis Joseph

* After the Austrian defeat in the Italian wars in 1859, **Emperor Francis Joseph (1848-1916)** attempted to establish an **imperial parliament** with a nominated upper house and an elected lower house of representatives
* The election system **highly favored German speakers**, alienating ethnic minorities, especially Hungarians

Tsar Alexander II

* Realized **serfdom was holding back the Russian population**
* Issued the **emancipation edict in 1861** so that peasants could now own property, marry as they chose, and bring suits in the law courts.
* Russian peasants still had **inadequate amounts of good land** which just got worse as the peasant population increased + they had to **pay the state** under the authority of the **mir** (village commune)
* **1864**: he instituted a system of **zemstvos** (local assemblies) that gave some **self-government** w/ representatives (nobles had an advantage). They were given limited power over public services, education, famine relief, and road/bridge maintenance. They could levy taxes but were often **disrupted by bureaucrats** who feared self-government.
* **Legal reform of 1864**: created a **regular system of local and provincial courts** and a **judicial code** that accepted the principle of **equality before the law.**
* By **1870** Russia saw an increasing number of reform movements

Alexander Herzen

* (**1812-1870**)
* believed **Russian peasants should be a part of social reform**
* **peasant village commune could serve as an independent new Russia**
* **Populism**: Russian students and intellectuals who followed Herzen - often violent
* **People’s Will**: group of radicals who assassinated Alexander II in 1881

British stability

* Reform Act of **1832** gave industrialist middle-class representation + continuing economic growth
* **Real wages increased** more than 25% between **1850 and 1870**

Queen Victoria

(r. 1837-1901): Victorian Age

Henry John Temple, Lord Palmerston

* (**1784-1865**) British
* **Whig prime minister** who successfully made a lot of political compromises
* Not a reformer; **opposed expanding the franchise**

Benjamin Disraeli

* (**1804-1881**) British
* **Tory leader** who wanted to win over newly enfranchised groups to the Conservative Party
* **The Reform Act of 1867** - lowered the monetary requirements for voting to enfranchise many male urban workers
* **New urban voters led to a huge liberal victory in 1868**
* Antagonist of: William Gladstone (1809-1898)

First Liberal administration of Gladstone

* (**1868-1874**) GB
* civil service positions were open to competitive exams rather than patronage
* introduced the secret ballot
* abolished the purchasing of military commissions
* **Education Act of 1870**: tried to make the elementary school available to all children.
* Reform Act of 1884: right to vote for all men who paid regular rents or taxes, enfranchising agricultural workers

The Kansas-Nebraska Act

* 1854 allowed Slavery in Kansas and Nebraska territories to be determined by popular sovereignty
* led to the creation of new sectional parties

Sovereignty in Canada

* **1837**: Canadian groups rose in rebellion against British authority (given control by Treaty of Paris)
* Rebels in Lower Canada demanded **separation from Britain, the creation of a republic, universal male suffrage, and freedom of the press**
* **Rebellions were crushed** but Britains sought to fulfill some of their demands
* In **1867** Parliament established the Canadian nation (**the Dominion of Canada**) with its own constitution and a parliamentary system to rule itself. Foreign affairs still remained under British control

Industrialization on the Continent

* **1850-1870**: **mechanization of the cotton and textile industries (wool)** and **growth of railroads** which **stimulated the growth of the iron and coal industries.**
* t**ransitioned from charcoal iron smelting to coke blast smelting**. Britain still produced the most Pig Iron and was much ahead of the continent in 1870.
* in the **mid-nineteenth century**, the textile, mining, and metallurgical industries rapidly converted to the use of **steam engines.**
* **Governments encouraged the formation of joint stock investment banks** so that a lot of capital resources could be mobilized for investment - they were important in the **1850s and 60s** for constructing railways.
* The Spanish Banking system that depended on railways collapsed in **1864**
* Before the **1870s** there were still few regulations on capitalist factories

Trade in the mid 1800s

* **Elimination of trade barriers to international trade**: **The Danube River** (**1857**) and the **Rhine** (**1861**) were declared **freeways for all ships**
* **Negotiation of Trade Treaties in the 1860s** reduced protective tariffs throughout western Europe

Karl Marx

(1818-1883)

* born into middle class Jewish family
* PhD in Philosophy but was unable to get a job at university as an atheist
* Became an editor of the liberal bourgeois newspaper: **Cologne** which was suppressed for radical views
* *The Communist Manifesto* was published in 1848
* *Das Kapital*
* inspired by German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

Friedrich Engels

(1820-1895)

* worked at his father’s factory and saw **“wage slavery”** first hand
* Indictment of industrial life: ***The Conditions of the Working Class in England*** (1844)
* Provided money to indebted Marx

Communist League

Marx and Engel joined in 1847, a group of primarily German socialists

Marx - ideas

* The Communist Manifesto was a synthesis of French and German thought
* German idea of **Dialectic** (everything evolves and all change in history is caused by clashes in antagonistic forces) influenced Marx
* Marx believed the course of history was determined by material forces
* He also believed that the government was defending the interest of the industrial middle class while the industrial working class were not served - but they would soon rise up against their bourgeois masters and a **classless society** would emerge which would lead to progress, tech, industry, and more wealth for all

International Working Men’s association

* Marx participated in the general council
* formed in **1864** by French and British trade unionists
* organization failed in **1872** but was revived in **1889**, regardless never had much impact.

New Age of Science

* Shift from looking inwards (**romanticism**) to looking at the outer world (**realism and science**)
* **Loss in faith in religion, growth in materialism, acceptance of the scientific method**
* Industrial rev and practical science (eg. engineering)
* Creates broad, public interest in science
* **Thermodynamics** (relationship between heat and mechanical energy) at core of **19th century** physics

Louis Pasteur

* (biologist) - (**1850**)
* Study of **microorganisms/bacteriology**
* Develops **germ theory of disease**
* His study on microorganisms in fermentation influenced the emergence of **Pasteurization** - heating process to destroy harmful microorganisms
* **Rabies Vaccine (1885)**

Dmitri Mendeleev

(chemist) - atomic weights and periodic law (1860s)

Michael Faraday

(engineer/chemist) - discovered electromagnetic induction, invents generator that would be the foundation of electricity

Charles Darwin

* (**1809-1882**)
* HMS Beagle - ship to explore the Galapagos Island, etc. in 1831
* ***On the Origin of Species by Natural Selection*** (**1859**) - groundbreaking work on science that presented organic evolution
* Influenced by Thomas Malthus’ theory that there is more population than resources, he explained that genetic variation caused desirable traits to allow specific members of a population to live longer aka Natural Selection
* ***The Descent of Man*** (1871) - applied principles of **natural selection** to human evolution; impacted faith while **denying human exceptionalism**

Joseph Lister

* (**1827-1912**)
* Antiseptics (Carbolic acid)- to prevent infection/gangrene

Health care changes:

* physical examinations of patients was combined with info from autopsies to create **new clinical medicine**
* Discovery of **microorganisms** changed the approach to medicine
* **Modern immunological science**: principle of vaccination spread to diphotheria, typhoid fever, cholera, and plague by the **1890s**
* Training of doctors
* **Surgery**: anesthesia (ether and chloroform) and sanitation

Urban public health movement of the 1840s and 1850s

* **Urban public health movement of the 1840s and 1850s** came as a response to the **cholera epidemic** focused on providing clean water, sewage disposal, and less crowded housing.
* Government hired medical doctors to deal with public health issues
* **Medical Associations** - British Med. Association (**1832**), American medical Association (**1847**), German Doctors’ Society (**1872**); attempts to enforce standards across the ‘board’
* **John Hopkins Uni.** (MD. USA) est. 4 year med program - will become model for future.

Elizabeth Blackwell

(1821-1910) attended the Geneva College of Medicine in New York after being admitted by mistake - received an MD in 1849 and created a clinic in NY

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* by 1890 many more women were being admitted in many countries but still not a lot

Sophia Jex-Blake

Elizabeth Garrett

distinguished physicians and suffragists

Margaret Ann Bulkey

(male pseudonym James Barry) - one of the first female obstetricians and is the first person to preform a c-section in South Africa.

Auguste Comte

* (**1798-1857**)
* ***System of Positive Philosophy*** (1830s/1840) - hierarchy of sciences; math is the foundation and sociology is at the top.

Realism

* rejection of Romanticism - used careful observation and accurate descriptions
* Realism became prominent in 1850
* In art: depiction of every day life of ordinary people + natural environment

Gustave Flaubert (1821-1880)

* realist writer
* *Madame Bovary* (1857) - contempt of bourgeois society

William Thackeray (1811-1863)

*Vanity Fair: A Novel Without a Hero* (1848)

Charles Dickens (1812-1870)

* realistic novels focused on **lower and middle classed in industrial Britain**
* Descriptions of urban poor and brutalization of urban life

Gustave Courbet (1819-1877)

* most famous artist of **the Realist school**
* **The Stonebreakers** (1849)

Jean-Francois Millet (1814-1875)

* realist
* scenes from **rural life** - landscape and country life
* ***The Gleaners***

New German School

* group/era of musicians
* **Franz Liszt** (**1811-1886**) (still highly Romantic musician)
* most highly esteemed virtuoso of his age + **greatest pianist of all time** (modern piano recital)
* symphonic poems - his orchestral works which didn’t obey traditional forms
* **Richard Wagner** (**1813-1883**)
* ***Gesamtkunstwerk*** *-* opera that put together music, acting, dance, poetry, and scenic design.
* **The Rise of the Nibelung**

Steel production

* Substitution of **steel** for iron - used in machines, engines, railways, ships, and weapons
* **Germany surpassed Britain by 1910** with double the steel production, the **US surpassed both of them by 1890**
* **Henry Bessemer** (**1855**); produces cheap, high-quality steel

Chemical industry

* GB fell behind in the **chemical industry**, France and Germany pulled ahead with German laboratories overtaking the British in developing **organic chemical compounds**
* By **1900s** German firms had 90% of the market for **dyestuffs** and led to the development of **photographic plates and film.**

Electricity

* First commercially practical generators of electrical current (1870s), hydroelectric power stations and coal fired steam-generating plants provided a common source of power for buildings (1910)
* **Thomas Edison**: (**1847-1931**) and **Joseph Swan** invented the lightbulb
* **Alexander Graham Bell** (**1847-1922**) invented the telephone **(1876)**
* **Guglielmo Marconi** (**1874-1937**) sent the first **radio wave across the Atlantic (1901)**

Internal Combustion Engine

* 1st I.C.E - burning a mixture of fossil fuel and air produced in England by **Sir Dugald Clark** (**1878**)
* use of **petroleum** and its **distilled derivatives** made it available for widespread use
* **Oil fired engine** was made in **1897** and by **1902** the **Hamburg-Amerika line** switched from **coal to oil**
* By the end of the **1800s** some **naval fleets** had converted to **oil burners**

Gottlieb Daimler

* invented the light engine in **1886** which was key to creating the **automobile**
* by **1906** America took the lead on automobile production

Henry Ford (1863-1947)

mass production, assembly line, “Model T” (1916: 735k cars/yr)

Wright Brothers, 1903

* Kittyhawk, N.C., USA
* First **fixed-wing aircraft powered by a gasoline engine**

New Markets

* After 1870 foreign markets are oversaturated
* More money to be spent of products + price of goods decreased due to lower transportation costs: led to mass marketing, department stores, and other materialistic constructs.
* Creation of cartels: decrease competition internally by making independent enterprises work together to control prices and fix production quotas which restrained the competition that led to reduced prices
* Late 19th-century protectionism (reaction against free trade) leads to higher tariffs, Europe returns to tariff protection in the 1860s

Economic Patterns (1873-1914)

* **Depression (1873-1895) - prices fell dramatically and businesses saw reduced profits (GB and France in the 1880s while Germany and the US in the 1870s)**
* **Economic Boom (1895-1914) - la belle epoque**
* improved agricultural production leads to wide-scale drop in agricultural prices causes countries to specialize in other products

Germany’s Industry

* **Germany replaces Britain as the industrial leader of Europe the after 1870** because:
* Germany opened **new and most advanced manufacturing/industrial plants**, including heavy electric machinery and chemicals
* Britain lagged behind Germany in encouraging technical and scientific education + new innovation.

Economic zones

* **Advance industrial core** of G. Britain, Belgium, France, Netherlands, Germany, (western) Austro-Hungarian Empire, and Northern Italy
* **Little industrial development** in South Italy, most of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Spain, Portugal, Balkans kingdoms, Russia - provided food and raw material to industrialized countries
* Connection between peasant emancipation and industrialization

White collar jobs for women

* **shortage of male workers** lead to new opportunities for women
* Secretaries and teachers
* Many lower class European women take jobs as: Nurses, shop assistants, clerks and other service sector jobs
* **Freedom from domestic patterns** but lack of education still restricted jobs compared to men

Prostitution

* increased migration to urban centers creates competition for jobs; some desperate women turn to prostitution
* prostitution was **licensed and regulated** in most European countries
* **Contagious Diseases Acts** in GB in the **1870s** and **1880s** to give authorities the right to examine prostitutes for venereal diseases - opposition to it came from middle-class female reformers
* Reformers led by **Josephine Butler** (**1828-1906**) who objected to laws that punished women but not men - known as the shrieking sisters and were successful in having the acts repealed in **1886**

German Social Democratic Party

* **1890** - 1.5 M votes, 35 seats in the Reichstag
* **1912** - received 4 million votes and was the largest single party in Germany
* led by Marxist leaders: Willhelm Liebknecht and August Bebel (pure marxist)

French socialism in late 19th and early 20th century

* **Jean Jaures** (**1859-1914**) - independent French socialist justified revolutionary socialism
* 1905 - french socialist parties unified themselves into a single mostly Marxist socialist party

Second International

* Paris (July 14, **1889**)
* Reps from 20 countries meet to strategize the spread of socialism
* May Day
* Two divisive issues: **nationalism and revisionism**
* Congressed passed resolutions in **1907** and **1910** advocating joint action by workers of different countries to avert war but did not implement them - **nationalism** continued to separate the many socialist parties

*Evolutionary Socialism* (1899)

* **Eduard Bernstein** (**1850-1932**) - SPD member and revisionist
* Argues - **capitalist system not broken**, and the **middle class is expanding** (not declining)
* Workers experiencing a higher standard of living
* Workers should organize and form political parties to bring about change - **evolution by democratic means** would bring about socialism

Trade unions in the late 18th and early 19th century

* ight to **strike** in many Western countries (by **1870s**)
* (**1888**) **female match workers** and (**1889**) **male dock workers** in Britain: Strike (walk out); leading to formation of unions for both
* **1900**, 2M workers in trade unions in Britain
* **1914**, 3-4 M of 1/3 of the labor force
* France: trades unions were connected to socialist ideology was very divided: **1895** **General Confederation of Labor - weak and ineffective**
* Germany, 1st unions (**1860s**), socialist (largest) + Catholic and Protestant Unions; **reject revolution in favor of collective bargaining** by **1899**

Anarchists

* **Early anarchists**: humans inherently good; corrupted by state over time, radicalization leads to violent means
* **Michael Bakunin - Russian anarchist:** violence will create the chaos necessary for anarchist golden age
* **Lev Aleshke**r - Russian anarchist
* anarchist revolutionaries used **assassination** as their primary instrument, they assassinated: a Russian tsar (**1881**), a president of the French Republic (**1894**), the king of Italy (**1900**), and a president of the US (**1901**).

Population growth

* (**1850-1910**) population grows from 270M to 460M
* **1850-1880** saw an increase in birth rate in Western Europe
* After **1880**, mainly b/c **decline in death rate - infant mortality declined substantially by 1900**
* **smallpox vaccine** and changing environmental conditions
* improvements in **sanitation** (e.g. pasteurization)
* **nutrition** and food hygiene improvements with increasing transportation of food

Emigration

* Economic motives e.g. 400k poles working in Ruhr region in 1913 so **Italian move to France** cities and under-industrialized areas in southern and eastern Europe emigrate to the USA which had an economic boom in **1898 + there were cheaper shipping fares after 1900**
* Between 1846-1932 around 60 million Europeans left Europe to go to the US, Canada, or Latin America - especially from southern and eastern Europe
* Political Motives - Poles, Slovaks, Serbs, Croats, Romanians, **Russian Jews flee political persecutions**; **1900-1913** 12% of **USA immigrants** are Jewish

Urban Social Reformers

* Edwin Chadwick (UK), Rudolf Virchow (Germany), and Solomon Neumann (Germany)
* **Public Health Act** (**1875**) - Britain
* Leads to: **running water/drainage in new buildings**
* Clean + Accessible water in the city from: dams, reservoirs, aqueducts, and tunnels
* Expulsion of sewage = key to reduce disease
* Gas heaters 1860s
* Electric Heaters 1880s

Victor Huber

* German reformer
* safe, clean housing = key to communal life and society
* Wanted to create **model dwellings** at a reasonable price to force landlords to up the standard

British housing reformers

* **Octavia Hill:** builds model housing for 3500 low income residents in UK
* **Lord Leverhulme**: **1887** builds model village ‘Port Sunlight’ outside Liverpool (industrial city) good housing = healthy and happy workforce
* **Ebenezer Howard**: founded garden city movements and Letchworth Garden City (**1903**)
* Create open country between towns
* Effort: improve quality of life (green it up)

Government support for urban reform

* British law passes in **1890** to empower local town councils to collect new taxes and construct cheap housing for the working class
* **London/Liverpool** = 1st to empower local **city councils** to collect/disseminate tax dollars for municipal projects/services
* Germany follow suit by **1900**
* France provided easy credit for private contractors to build working class housing (**1894**)

Dr. Aletta Jacob

created Europe’s first birth control clinic in 1882 in Amsterdam

Raising boys

* Sons of middle class families would follow careers like their father’s and were sent to schools separate from society until 16/17 y.o.
* Sports toughened boys up
* Boy Scouts (**1908**): military training and character building

Elementary education

* states began to offer **public education**
* France in **1833** created a system of state-run secular schools instructed by local governments and it became compulsory for children 6-13 in **1882**
* Austria in **1869** created free, compulsory elementary education
* Britain made it compulsory in **1880** and brought all elementary schools under county and town control in **1902**
* states assumed responsibility for teacher training
* Increased literacy connected to compulsory education

Motives for increase in public education

* Personal and social development
* needs of industrialization and military
* need for an **educated electorate**
* instilled patriotism and societal values
* differences in education of boys (practical skills) and girls (domestic skills)

Teachers - mostly women

* Britain: women’s colleges of Queen’s and Bedford established in the 1840s
* **Barbara Bodichon** (**1827-1891**) - established her own school where girls were trained for economic independence

Mass leisure

* Amusement parks
* Music and dance halls
* Thomas Cook: mass tourism
* Sports
* Professional Sports

Reform in Britain

* Reform Act (**1867**)
* Suffrage extended
* Redistribution Act (**1885**)
* reorganized the election boroughs into constituencies with more equal population and one representative each
* Salaries paid to members of the House of Commons (1911)
* Home Rule Act in 1914: gave autonomy to irish - Irish protestants mad to be under control of catholics

Reform in France

* Universal male suffrage in 1871
* People favor monarchists in the new National Assembly


* Radical republicans formed an independent government
* **The Commune**: Fighting between the Commune and the government
* Commune was crushed by the government troops


* Monarchists could not agree on a king so an improvised constitution was established in **1875** which made a republican form of government.

French Constitution - 1875

* established a bicameral assembly with an upper house (the Senate) elected indirectly and a lower house (the Chamber of Deputies) chosen by universal male suffrage
* a president was chosen by the legislature for a 7 year term
* Republicans were able to institute ministerial responsibility and establish the power of the chamber of deputies