Studied by 5 people
What are the 3 criteria that help deviate abnormal behaviour from normal behaviour?
it is behaviour that is:
deviant
maladaptive
OR personally distressful over a long period of time
only one out of three needs to be present for the behaviour to be labeled as “abnormal”, but typically two are present. If the behaviour persists then it may lead to the diagnosis of a psychological disorder.
What does it mean when abnormal behaviour is deviant?
it deviates from what it is acceptable in culture BUT context of a behaviour may determine whether it is deviant or not
FOR EX. a woman washing her hands four times a day and showering seven times a day is abnormal because it deviates from what is considered acceptable, but context matters in the sense that she could be working in a sterile lab with live viruses or radioactive material which makes her behaviour quite acceptable now
What does it mean when abnormal behaviour is maladaptive?
that means it interferes with a person’s ability to function effectively in the world BUT context matters when evaluating adaptive and maladaptive.
FOR EX. man who believes that he can endanger people by his breathing would go to great lengths to separate himself from people for their own good.
that belief separates him from society and prevents his everyday functioning which now makes his behaviour maladaptive. Behaviour that presents a danger to the person or to those around them is GENERALLY maladaptive (and abnormal)
context matters in this case because if there was a global pandemic, COVID-19, his behaviour would be rational and adaptive
What does it mean when behaviour involves person distress over a long period of time?
the person engaging in the behaviour finds it troubling.
FOR EX. a woman who secretly makes herself vomit after every meal may never be seen by others as deviant (because they don’t know about it) BUT this pattern of behaviour may cause her to feel intense shame and guilt
What is the biological approach to mental disorders?
it focuses primarily on the brain, genetics and neurotransmitter function as the sources behind abnormality.
APA defines abnormal behaviour as a mental illness that affects or is manifested in a person’s brain that can affect the way an individual thinks, behaves, and interacts with others. (this approach is part of the medical model)
What is the medical model?
the view that psychological disorders are medical diseases with a biological origin
What is the psychological approach to abnormal behaviour?
it emphasizes the contributions of experiences, thoughts, emotions, and personality characteristics in explaining psychological disorders
FOR EX. they might focus on how your childhood or personality traits influences your mental disorders
How do behavioural psychologists and cognitive psychologists differ in the way they might take the psychological approach to mental disorders?
behavioural psychologists are more focused on the reward and punishers that determine the abnormal behaviour
cognitive psychologists focus on observational learning, cognitions and beliefs as factors that foster or maintain abnormal behaviour
What approach does the sociocultural approach take to mental disorders?
it emphasizes the social contexts in which a person lives, including their culture
by using deviance as a criteria to describe abnormal behaviour suggest that the sociocultural factors play an important role in psychological disorders
culture establishes the norms by which people evaluate behaviour which is telling us whether it is socially acceptable or not
evaluating behaviour as deviant, culture matters in complex ways
How can cultural norms be mistaken?
such norms can be limiting, oppressive, and prejudicial
individuals who fight to change the established social order sometimes face being labelled “deviant” or even “mentally ill”.
justifiable demands for social change are not to be labelled abnormal so normal changes as societal norms change
How do psychological disorders “change” across cultures?
some cultures have different ideas of what it means to be normal and abnormal so the chapter reflects on mainly Western ideas of normal and tries to keep in mind that this would differ depending on country
What does the sociocultural perspective stress?
the ways that culture influence the understanding and treatment of psychological disorders
the frequency and intensity of psychological disorders vary and depend social, economic, technological, and religious aspects of cultures
Can disorders be culture-related? (Figure 14.1)
Yes
Besides culture, what else do psychologists focus on besides the effect of sociocultural factors on psychological disorders?
Social factors like gender, ethnicity, socioeconomic status and family relationships
What is the biopsychosocial model?
it combines all the approaches previously discussed to contribute to our understanding of mental illness (or medical diseases)
abnormal behaviour can be influence by biological factors (genes), psychological factors and sociocultural factors (gender)
Do all factors operate alone according to the biopsychosocial perspective?
they can, but they usually combine AND they are all equally important to producing abnormal and normal behaviour
they can combine and interact in different ways to produce the same mental illness ex. two people with depression can have two different factors causing it
Why do we need to consider the factors together and interaction?
there is no single gene or experience that can lead to the development of a mental disorder
FOR EX. two siblings can have the same gene for depression and one develops it and one doesn’t OR both have the experience and one develops it and one does not
What approach does the biopsychosocial model take to treatement?
since it understands that there isn’t one leading factor for the cause of mental disorders, it takes a holistic approach for assessment and diagnosis
it advocates for multi-dimensional treatment approach which addresses:
biological factors (ex. psychopharmaceuticals or antidepressants)
psychological factors (ex. psychotherapy or meditation)
social factors (ex. skill training, occupational and family therapy)
What is the vulnerability-stress hypothesis (diathesis-stress model)?
a way to understand the development of mental illness
theory suggesting that pre-existing conditions—such as genetic characteristics, personality dispositions, or experiences—may put a person at risk of developing a psychological disorder.
What is one way psychologists examine these processes?
studying the interactions between genetic characteristics and environmental circumstances (G x E)
they continue to probe at how genetic characteristics produce vulnerability to psychological disorders in the face of stressful experiences
What are pros and cons of diagnosing someone?
it can give comfort and it classification does not include or specify the particular treatment protocol
it can be a problem because it increases the potential of a stigma, a mark of shame that may cause others to avoid or act negatively toward a person
What is the DSM-5?
the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders; the major classification of psychological disorders in North America.
What is the first critique of DSM-5?
it treats psychological disorders as if they are medical illnesses, taking an overly biological view of conditions that may have their roots in social experience (continues to reflect to reflect medical model, neglecting factors such as poverty, unemployment and trauma)
What is the 2nd critique of DSM?
it focuses too much on weaknesses rather than strengths
What are the other critiques of DSM-5?
it relies too much on social norms and subjective judgments
too much new categories of disorders have been added, some which do not have consistent research support and would lead to a significant increase in the number of people being labelled as having a mental disorder
loosening the standards for some existing diagnoses will add to the already very high rates of these disorders
Why does it matter that there are critiques on DSM-5?
insurance companies will only reimburse treatments of diagnoses in DSM-5
since it is through the medical model, it plays on the assumption that it can be fixed through medical means
What disorders have changes in DSM-5 and what are the changes and the sources of concern?
Check figure 14.2 on page 542
What is the autism spectrum disorder?
it refers to a range of neurodevelopment disorders involving impaired social interaction and communication, repetitive behaviour, and restricted interests.
it is a spectrum disorder b/c range of symptoms and there is no single identified cause for the disorder
a diverse group where their level of disability differs from mild to severe
Why do people with autism have different severities and symptoms?
it shares numerous complex causes including genetic and neurological factors
Is the amount of people with autism increasing?
yes
1 in 66 children have autism and is rising b/c there is greater awareness by parents and healthcare providers
What is somatic symptom disorder and why did it change?
a psychological disorder in which a person experiences one or more bodily (somatic) symptoms and experiences excessive thoughts and feelings about these symptoms that interfere with everyday functioning
somatoform disorder
focuses on the relationships between mind and body
it was a common belief that the symptoms for this disorder are not a physically “real”
What is attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
a common psychological disorder in which the individual exhibits one or more of the following: inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.
What is the different between anxiety and fear?
we are adapted to fear and not anxiety
anxiety (aversive state we try to change with distraction):
future-oriented
mood state
feeling that one cannot predict or control upcoming events
fear:
present-oriented
emotional alarm reaction to present danger
emergency “fight or flight” response
What are anxiety disorders?
disabling (uncontrollable and disruptive) psychological disorders that feature motor tension, hyperactivity, and apprehensive expectations and thoughts.
What are the most common anxiety disorder?
generalized anxiety disorder
panic disorder with/without agoraphobia
specific phobia
social anxiety disorder
What were the two disorders that were under anxiety in the DSM-5, but isn’t part of it anymore?
obsessive compulsive disorder (under obsessive-compulsive and related disorder)
post-traumatic stress disorder (under trauma and stress related disorder)
Why do we need diagnosis / DSM-IV in the first place?
people do not like diagnosis because then they will have a name for their weakness (stigma), but we require it because we need all researchers doing research to be sure that they are talking about the same diagnosis to make sure when we say “this treatment works for this disorder” we are all on the same page talking about the same thing
FOR EX. if one psychologist says that their client is experiencing depression, another psychologists
it can help clinicians make predictions about the likelihood of a particular disorder’s occurrence, which individuals would be most susceptible to it, and what the best treatment might be
the fact that an individual’s disorder has a name can be a comforting signal that the person may reasonably expect relief
What is generalized anxiety disorder?
an anxiety disorder marked by persistent anxiety for at least six months, and in which the individual is unable to specify the reasons for the anxiety
FOR EX. when you are anxious about something. there is usually a cause like doing bad in school and etc. but for people with GAD there is no specific cause
Can people with GAD worry a lot?
yes, they worry even to the point where it takes a physical toll like fatigue, muscle tension, stomach problems and difficulty sleeping
What are the biological factors that play a role in generalized anxiety disorder?
genetic predispositions
deficiency in the neurotransmitter GABA (the brain’s brake pedal)
respiratory problems
problems regulating the sympathetic nervous system
What are the psychological and sociocultural factors that play a role in generalized anxiety disorder?
harsh (or even impossible) self-standards
overly strict, critical or cold parents
a history controllable traumas or stressors (such as an abusive parent)
What is panic disorder?
an anxiety disorder in which the individual experiences recurrent, sudden onsets of intense terror, often without warning and with no specific cause.
FOR EX. when you dash across the street to your dorm when a car is coming is an example of panic, but if you felt that way when there was no car or anything.. you would have panic disorder
What is panic disorder (described in lecture)?
recurrent, unexpected (uncued aka nothing to fight and nothing to flee) panic attacks
AND one month of concern about additional attacks (make illusory correlations with where or what happened)
FOR EX. it happened in class so you stop going to class
OR… worry about the implications of the attack or its consequences
OR.. a significant change in behaviour related to the attacks
What is agoraphobia?
anxiety about being in places/situations from which escape might be difficult or embarrassing in the event of a panic attack
FOR EX. if they go out, they usually sit by the door and/or they usually have a safety person
situations are avoided or endured with marked distress or anxiety about having a panic attack OR require the presence of a companion
What are some typical agoraphobic situations?
any place in public
shopping malls
cars
trains
buses
subways
wide streets
tunnels
restaurants
How do you get rid of panic disorders?
extinction method
you need to habituate by sitting and bearing with it
What is the criteria for a panic attack?
discrete period of intense fear/discomfort in which at least 4 symptoms developed abruptly and reached a peak within 10 minutes
palpitations, pounding/racing heart
sweating
trembling/shaking
shortness of breath/smothering sensations
feeling of choking
chest pain/discomfort
nausea or abdominal stress
feeling dizzy, unsteady, faint or lightheaded
derealization or depersonalization (you feel like you have been ejected from your body and watching yourself)
fear of losing control or going crazy
fear of dying
paresthesias (numbness or tingling sensations)
chills or hot flushes
What is a cued vs. uncued panic attack?
cued: there is a set reason why, you know why it is happening and what you are afraid of
FOR EX. someone pointing a gun at your head or a wolf chasing after you
uncued: nothing happening or there’s not a set reason why, but you have a panic attack. there’s nothing to fight so you flee and this tells your unconcious that it was a good thing, so it increases the symptoms
FOR EX. you are in class and nothing is currently endangering you, but you feel the symptoms of a panic attack
What is the quicksand analogy?
when you don’t get treatment immediately often because of the stigmatization of mental health
if you get stuck in quick sand and you are about ankle deep, you can still pull yourself out, but if you get neck deep, you need to get someone else and a rope
you need to prioritize your mental health
How do get rid of stigma?
you need to educate yourself and understand that it is a stigma
stigma is just ignorance (lack of education)
What are the biological factors for panic disorder?
genetic disposition (genes for hormone regulation and response to stress)
direct action of the neurotransmitters GABA, serotonin, and norepinephrine
increase in the brain chemical, lactate, which is responsible for the brain’s metabolism
increase in lactate can produce panic attacks
shares biological characteristics with physical illnesses like asthma, hypertension and cardiovascular disease
What are the psychological factors that play into panic disorder?
classical conditioning: learned associations between bodily cues of respiration and fear can play a role in panic attacks
increased co2 is a stimulus for fear so if you breathe faster without being scared, it can cause you to be scared
generalization: showing a conditioned response (fear) to stimuli other than the particular one used in learning
individuals who have panic attacks show an overgeneralization of fear of learning. why? b/c of genetic dispositions to develop associations when they encounter stressful life events
What are the sociocultural factors of panic disorder?
women are 2x more likely to have panic disorders than men
why? b/c of biological differences in hormones and neurotransmitters
men and women cope with anxiety-provoking situations in different ways
What is specific phobia?
an anxiety disorder in which the individual experiences an irrational, overwhelming, persistent fear of a particular object or situation.
exposure to the phobic stimulus almost invariably provokes an immediate anxiety response (e.g. a panic attack)
phobic situation/object is avoided or endured with intense anxiety and distress
when you are so scared of something that it starts to interfere with your everyday life
What are the types of specific phobia?
animal
natural environment
blood-injection-injury type
situational (e.g. planes, elevators, driving)
other (e.g. choking, vomiting)
Where do specific phobias come from?
fears plays an important role in adaptive behaviour b/c it tells us when we are in danger and when to take action
the importance of this function tells us that fear should be learned relatively quickly b/c learning to fear things that can hurt us keeps us out of harm’s way
specific phobias are extreme and unfortunate variants of this adaptive process
Which gender is more likely to experience specific phobias?
women
What are other explanations of why we have specific phobias?
they are viewed as based on experiences, memories and learned associations
FOR EX. you were attacked by birds as a kid and it was used against you and now you have a phobia of birds or you could have watched people who were scared of birds (observational learning)
Does everyone who has a specific phobia identify the experiences that caused it?
no, SO other factors can be at play, each specific phobia has its own neural correlates and some people might be prone to specific phobias
FOR EX. your parents might have a mental disorder (even if it is not a specific phobia disorder, it can cause you to develop one)
What is social anxiety disorder (social phobia)?
an anxiety disorder in which the individual has an intense fear of being humiliated or embarrassed in social situations.
What is social phobia (explained in lecture)?
marked and persistent fear of social or performance situations
situations involve exposure to unfamiliar people or to possible evaluation by other
exposure is one of the best way to get rid of anixety
individual fear that he/she may do something humiliating or embarrassing
What are examples of social phobia?
test anxiety
performance anxiety
social anxiety
scared of evaluation by someone we want to like us because we don’t want to fall down social hierarchy
Where causes social anxiety and how does it differ from people with SAD?
it exists in situations where we feel like we are being evaluated or judged and the fear that we will be negatively judged or evaluated causes anxiety for most people
it differs for people with SAD b/c the level of anxiety caused by these situations can often lead to panic attacks
What biological factors play into SAD?
genes
the brain: the thalamus, amygdala and cerebral cortex
oxytocin
What are some vulnerabilities that come with social anxiety disorder?
genetic characteristics
overprotective or reject parenting that lay a foundation of risk combined w/ learning experiences in a social context
What do people with SAD feel like SAD prevents them form doing?
They feel like it prevents them from being themselves authentically
authenticity is strongly related to well-being b/c being who we are can buffer the effects of social conflicts
What is obsessive-complusive disorder?
psychological disorder in which the individual has anxiety-provoking thoughts that will not go away and/or urges to perform repetitive, ritualistic behaviours to prevent or produce some future situation
in the lecture: recurrent and persistent obsessions and/or compulsions
symptoms cause marked distress
time consuming (more than 1 hour/day)
interfere significantly with person’s normal routine
What are obsessions and what are compulsions?
obsessions are recurrent thoughts
compulsions are recurrent behaviours used to neutralize those thoughts
people with OCD dwell on doubts and repeat behavioural routines sometimes hundreds of times a day
only OCD when they aren’t sure if they will act on their obsession
What are obsessions, according to the lecture?
persistent and intrusive thoughts, impulses, images (can be anything, but horrible thoughts they aren’t sure they would do. if they do have OCD, they won’t because they just get worse obsessions)
inappropriate, caused marked anxiety or distress
person usually attempts to ignore or suppress them
OR neutralize them with some other thought or action
What are compulsions?
repetitive behaviours or mental acts
performed to prevent or reduce anxiety/distress, not to provide pleasure or gratification
What is an example of OCD / common compulsions?
common compulsions are excessive checking, cleaning and counting
an individual with OCD might believe that if they don’t count their steps as they walk across the room then something bad will happen
What is OCPD?
obsessive compulsive personality disorder
the disorder where you think things have to be “perfect”
What are biological factors to OCD?
genetic component
low levels of the neurotransmitters serotonin and dopamine and high levels of glutamate
neurological links: hyperactive monitoring of behaviour and brain activation during learning may predispose people with OCD to feel like something is not quite right
Using the biological factor of OCD, how might the brain work specifically for someone with OCD?
the frontal cortex or basal ganglia are so active that numerous impulses reach the thalamus generating obsessive thoughts or compulsive actions so it fails to get the “finished” message
How does negative reinforcement work with people with OCD?
when they are rewarded for the action, it gets rid of the aversive state of fear
when she does the ritual and nothing bad happens, she feels like it’s because of the ritual, not knowing nothing bad would’ve happened anyway but if she doesn’t perform it so she feels anxious
What is avoidance learning and how is it an important contributor to the maintenance of compulsive symptoms?
a powerful form of negative reinforcement that occurs when the organism learns that by making a particular response, an unpleasant or aversive stimulus can be avoided completely
this can even be maintained in the absence of the aversive stimulus, but the avoiding organism may never know that fact
Is it true that people with OCD are stuck in a “vicious” cycle?
yes
it is associated with reduced flexibility in learning that the rules of learned tasks have changed
they show cognitive bias by overestimating threats and can’t just turn off negative or intrusive thoughts by ignoring them
since they are so prone to see the outcome as worse, they are likely to have thoughts bothered about if they avoided it or not
What are the 4 OCD-related disorders?
Hoarding disorder involves compulsive collecting, poor organization skills, and difficulty discarding, but also cognitive deficits in information-processing speed, decision making, and procrastination. Individuals with hoarding disorder find it difficult to throw things away; they are troubled by the feeling of uncertainty—the sense that they might need, for instance, old newspapers, at a later time.
Excoriation disorder (or skin picking) refers to a particular compulsion, picking at one’s skin, sometimes to the point of injury. Skin picking is more common among women than men and is sometimes seen as a symptom of autism spectrum disorder. Infections and complications with healing are issues with this disorder.
Trichotillomania (hair pulling) is a disorder in which the person compulsively pulls at their hair, from the scalp, eyebrows, and other body areas. Hair pulling from the scalp can lead to patches of baldness that the person may go to great lengths to disguise.
Body dysmorphic disorder involves a distressing preoccupation with imagined or slight flaws in one’s physical appearance. Individuals with the disorder cannot stop thinking about their appearance, comparing their appearance to others, checking themselves in the mirror, and so forth. Occurring about equally in men and women, this disorder can involve maladaptive behaviours such as compulsive exercise and bodybuilding and repeated cosmetic surgery.
What is body dysmorphic disorder?
preoccupation with an imagined defect in appearance, or if a slight physical anomaly is present, the person’s concern is excessive
significant distress or impairment
What are sstressor related disorder?
PTSD (MDMA aka molly or magic mushrooms used to treat PTSD)
Adjustment Disorder
Reactive Adjustment Disorder
What is post traumatic stress disorder?
psychological disorder that develops through exposure to a traumatic event, a severely oppressive situation, cruel abuse, or a natural or an unnatural disaster.
What are symptoms of PTSD?
these can also occur in people who just hear and witness it instead of people who experience the trauma
flashbacks in which the individual relives the event as if it is happening all over again. A flashback can make the person lose touch with reality and re-enact the event for seconds, hours, or (very rarely) days.
Avoidance of emotional experiences and of talking about emotions with others, as well as emotional numbing.
Feelings of anxiety, nervousness, excessive arousal, and an inability to sleep.
Difficulties with memory and concentration, exaggerated startle response.
Impulsive behaviour, irritability
Does PTSD follow trauma immediately after it occurs?
it can, but it can follow even months or years after the trauma
it affects the delicate balance of neurotransmitters, hormones and other biological systems
Does every individual exposed to the same event experience PTSD? Why or why not?
no
factors such as previous traumatic events and conditions, such as abuse and psychological disorders, cultural background and genetic predisposition can influence someone’s vulnerability to PTSD in face of stressful eventsss
What are two disorders that cause dysregulation in a person’s emotional life?
depressive disorders
bipolar disorders
What are depressive disorders?
psychological disorders in which the individual suffers from depression—an unrelenting lack of pleasure in life.
What are some depressive disorders?
disruptive mood dysregulation disorder
major depressive disorder
persistent depressive disorder (dysthymia)
premenstrual dysphoric disorder
substance/medication-induced depressive disorder
depressive disorder due to another medical condition
other specified depressive disorder and unspecified depressive disorder
Are depressive disorders common?
cent yes
5.4 percent of Canadians 15 and up reported having symptoms of a mood disorder in the past 12 months and 12.6 percent adults reported the same thing
What racial groups have twice (16%) the amount of depression than the national average?
Indigenous peoples
What is major depressive disorder (MDD)>
psychological disorder involving a significant depressive episode and depressed characteristics, such as lethargy and hopelessness, for at least two weeks.
What are symptoms of MDD?
Depressed mood most of the day
Reduced interest or pleasure in activities that were once enjoyable
Significant weight loss or gain or significant decrease or increase in appetite
Trouble sleeping or sleeping too much
Fatigue or loss of energy
Feeling worthless or guilty in an excessive or inappropriate manner
Problems in thinking, concentrating, or making decisions
Recurrent thoughts of death and suicide
No history of manic episodes (periods of euphoric mood)
What are people likely to be diagnosed with when they have less extreme depressive mood for over two years?
Persistent depressive disorder
this disorder includes symptoms such as hopelessness, lack of energy, poor concentration, and sleep problems
What are the biological factors for depressive disorder?
genes: vulnerability-stress association in conjunction with experience
brain structure and function: lower brain activity in a section of the prefrontal cortex for generating actions and in regions of the brain associated with the perception of rewards
neurotransmitters: serotonin transporter gene, too few receptors for serotonin and norepinephrine transmitters
they are associated with depression, but they do not cause depression. they are only associated with depression if the person’s social environment is stressful
individuals w/ these symptoms are at a lower risk of having depression if they are in a warm, positive environment
What type of depression is a qualifier for MDD? What does this also demonstrate about biological factors in depression?
postpartum depression is a qualifier of major depressive disorder and can result in depression in women (and sometimes men by proxy) after childbirth, due to the tremendous changes in hormones and body chemistry that can occur during pregnancy and after birth.
this also demonstrates the strong role that biological factors can play in the etiology of depression.
What are the psychological factors of major depressive disorder? What are advantages and disadvantages of this?
one behavioural view of depression focuses on learned helplessness, an individual’s feelings of powerlessness following exposure to aversive circumstances, such as prolonged stress, over which the individual has no control.
when people cannot control negative circumstances, they may feel helpless and stop trying to change their situation. this helplessness spirals into a feeling of hopelessness
one advantage to the learned helplessness approach is that because scientists can induce learned helplessness in animals, animal models can be used to examine how such experiences affect the brain and body.
another advantage might be the ability to unlearn helplessness. If we can induce it, we can unlearn or reduce it.
What is the first cognitive explanation/views of depression?
cognitive explanations of depression focus on thoughts and beliefs that can contribute to and prolong a sense of hopelessness.
What do automatic negative thoughts reflect according to the cognitive explanation of depression?
automatic negative thoughts reflect illogical self-defeating beliefs that shape the experiences of individuals who are depressed.
these habitual negative thoughts magnify negative experiences.
FOR EX. a person who is depressed might overgeneralize about a minor occurrence—say, turning in a work assignment late—and think that they are worthless. The accumulation of cognitive distortions can lead to depression.
Is the course of depression influenced by the way people think?
yes
not only that, but HOW they think
depressed individuals may ruminate on negative experiences and negative feelings, playing them over and over again in their minds.
this tendency to ruminate is associated with the development of depression
What is the second cognitive explanation/views of depression?
attributions
attributional style is a person’s habitual way of explaining events in their lives
What is attributional style and what type do people with depression have? What causes do they blame it on?
attributional style is a person’s habitual way of explaining events in their lives.
pessimistic attributional style means blaming oneself for negative events and expecting the negative events to recur in the future.
FOR EX. the pessimist explains negative events as having internal causes (“It is my fault I failed the exam”), stable causes (“I’m going to fail again and again”), and global causes (“Failing this exam shows that I won’t do well in any of my courses”).
