PSY100 Chapter Fourteen

What are the 3 criteria that help deviate abnormal behaviour from normal behaviour?

it is behaviour that is:

* deviant
* maladaptive
* OR personally distressful over a long period of time

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only one out of three needs to be present for the behaviour to be labeled as “abnormal”, but typically two are present. If the behaviour persists then it may lead to the diagnosis of a psychological disorder.

What does it mean when abnormal behaviour is deviant?

it deviates from what it is acceptable in culture BUT context of a behaviour may determine whether it is deviant or not

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FOR EX. a woman washing her hands four times a day and showering seven times a day is abnormal because it deviates from what is considered acceptable, but context matters in the sense that she could be working in a sterile lab with live viruses or radioactive material which makes her behaviour quite acceptable now

What does it mean when abnormal behaviour is maladaptive?

that means it interferes with a person’s ability to function effectively in the world BUT context matters when evaluating adaptive and maladaptive.

FOR EX. man who believes that he can endanger people by his breathing would go to great lengths to separate himself from people for their own good.

* that belief separates him from society and prevents his everyday functioning which now makes his behaviour maladaptive. Behaviour that presents a danger to the person or to those around them is GENERALLY maladaptive (and abnormal)

context matters in this case because if there was a global pandemic, COVID-19, his behaviour would be rational and adaptive

What does it mean when behaviour involves person distress over a long period of time?

the person engaging in the behaviour finds it troubling.

* FOR EX. a woman who secretly makes herself vomit after every meal may never be seen by others as deviant (because they don’t know about it) BUT this pattern of behaviour may cause her to feel intense shame and guilt

What is the biological approach to mental disorders?

it focuses primarily on the brain, genetics and neurotransmitter function as the sources behind abnormality.

* APA defines abnormal behaviour as a mental illness that affects or is manifested in a person’s brain that can affect the way an individual thinks, behaves, and interacts with others. (this approach is part of the medical model)

What is the medical model?

the view that psychological disorders are medical diseases with a biological origin

What is the psychological approach to abnormal behaviour?

it emphasizes the contributions of experiences, thoughts, emotions, and personality characteristics in explaining psychological disorders

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FOR EX. they might focus on how your childhood or personality traits influences your mental disorders

How do behavioural psychologists and cognitive psychologists differ in the way they might take the psychological approach to mental disorders?

* behavioural psychologists are more focused on the reward and punishers that determine the abnormal behaviour
* cognitive psychologists focus on observational learning, cognitions and beliefs as factors that foster or maintain abnormal behaviour

What approach does the sociocultural approach take to mental disorders?

* it emphasizes the social contexts in which a person lives, including their culture
* by using deviance as a criteria to describe abnormal behaviour suggest that the sociocultural factors play an important role in psychological disorders
* culture establishes the norms by which people evaluate behaviour which is telling us whether it is socially acceptable or not
* evaluating behaviour as deviant, culture matters in complex ways

How can cultural norms be mistaken?

such norms can be limiting, oppressive, and prejudicial

* individuals who fight to change the established social order sometimes face being labelled “deviant” or even “mentally ill”.
* justifiable demands for social change are not to be labelled abnormal so normal changes as societal norms change

How do psychological disorders “change” across cultures?

some cultures have different ideas of what it means to be normal and abnormal so the chapter reflects on mainly Western ideas of normal and tries to keep in mind that this would differ depending on country

What does the sociocultural perspective stress?

the ways that culture influence the understanding and treatment of psychological disorders

* the frequency and intensity of psychological disorders vary and depend social, economic, technological, and religious aspects of cultures

Can disorders be culture-related? (Figure 14.1)

Yes

Besides culture, what else do psychologists focus on besides the effect of sociocultural factors on psychological disorders?

Social factors like gender, ethnicity, socioeconomic status and family relationships

What is the biopsychosocial model?

it combines all the approaches previously discussed to contribute to our understanding of mental illness (or medical diseases)

* abnormal behaviour can be influence by biological factors (genes), psychological factors and sociocultural factors (gender)

Do all factors operate alone according to the biopsychosocial perspective?

they can, but they usually combine AND they are all equally important to producing abnormal and normal behaviour

* they can combine and interact in different ways to produce the same mental illness ex. two people with depression can have two different factors causing it

Why do we need to consider the factors together and interaction?

* there is no single gene or experience that can lead to the development of a mental disorder
* FOR EX. two siblings can have the same gene for depression and one develops it and one doesn’t OR both have the experience and one develops it and one does not

What approach does the biopsychosocial model take to treatement?

* since it understands that there isn’t one leading factor for the cause of mental disorders, it takes a holistic approach for assessment and diagnosis
* it advocates for multi-dimensional treatment approach which addresses:
* biological factors (ex. psychopharmaceuticals or antidepressants)
* psychological factors (ex. psychotherapy or meditation)
* social factors (ex. skill training, occupational and family therapy)

What is the vulnerability-stress hypothesis (diathesis-stress model)?

* a way to understand the development of mental illness
* theory suggesting that pre-existing conditions—such as genetic characteristics, personality dispositions, or experiences—may put a person at risk of developing a psychological disorder.

What is one way psychologists examine these processes?

studying the interactions between genetic characteristics and environmental circumstances (G x E)

* they continue to probe at how genetic characteristics produce vulnerability to psychological disorders in the face of stressful experiences

What are pros and cons of diagnosing someone?

* it can give comfort and it classification does not include or specify the particular treatment protocol
* it can be a problem because it increases the potential of a stigma, a mark of shame that may cause others to avoid or act negatively toward a person

What is the DSM-5?

the fifth edition of the *Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders;* the major classification of psychological disorders in North America.

What is the first critique of DSM-5?

it treats psychological disorders as if they are medical illnesses, taking an overly biological view of conditions that may have their roots in social experience (continues to reflect to reflect medical model, neglecting factors such as poverty, unemployment and trauma)

What is the 2nd critique of DSM?

it focuses too much on weaknesses rather than strengths

What are the other critiques of DSM-5?

* it relies too much on social norms and subjective judgments
* too much new categories of disorders have been added, some which do not have consistent research support and would lead to a significant increase in the number of people being labelled as having a mental disorder
* loosening the standards for some existing diagnoses will add to the already very high rates of these disorders

Why does it matter that there are critiques on DSM-5?

* insurance companies will only reimburse treatments of diagnoses in DSM-5
* since it is through the medical model, it plays on the assumption that it can be fixed through medical means

What disorders have changes in DSM-5 and what are the changes and the sources of concern?

Check figure 14.2 on page 542

What is the autism spectrum disorder?

* it refers to a range of neurodevelopment disorders involving impaired social interaction and communication, repetitive behaviour, and restricted interests.
* it is a spectrum disorder b/c range of symptoms and there is no single identified cause for the disorder
* a diverse group where their level of disability differs from mild to severe

Why do people with autism have different severities and symptoms?

* it shares numerous complex causes including genetic and neurological factors

Is the amount of people with autism increasing?

yes

* 1 in 66 children have autism and is rising b/c there is greater awareness by parents and healthcare providers

What is somatic symptom disorder and why did it change?

* a psychological disorder in which a person experiences one or more bodily (somatic) symptoms and experiences excessive thoughts and feelings about these symptoms that interfere with everyday functioning
* somatoform disorder
* focuses on the relationships between mind and body
* it was a common belief that the symptoms for this disorder are not a physically “real”

What is attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

a common psychological disorder in which the individual exhibits one or more of the following: inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.

What is the different between anxiety and fear?

we are adapted to fear and not anxiety

* anxiety (aversive state we try to change with distraction):
* future-oriented
* mood state
* feeling that one cannot predict or control upcoming events
* fear:
* present-oriented
* emotional alarm reaction to present danger
* emergency “fight or flight” response

What are anxiety disorders?

disabling (uncontrollable and disruptive) psychological disorders that feature motor tension, hyperactivity, and apprehensive expectations and thoughts.

What are the most common anxiety disorder?

* generalized anxiety disorder
* panic disorder with/without agoraphobia
* specific phobia
* social anxiety disorder

What were the two disorders that were under anxiety in the DSM-5, but isn’t part of it anymore?

* obsessive compulsive disorder (under obsessive-compulsive and related disorder)
* post-traumatic stress disorder (under trauma and stress related disorder)

Why do we need diagnosis / DSM-IV in the first place?

* people do not like diagnosis because then they will have a name for their weakness (stigma), but we require it because we need all researchers doing research to be sure that they are talking about the same diagnosis to make sure when we say “this treatment works for this disorder” we are all on the same page talking about the same thing
* FOR EX. if one psychologist says that their client is experiencing depression, another psychologists
* it can help clinicians make predictions about the likelihood of a particular disorder’s occurrence, which individuals would be most susceptible to it, and what the best treatment might be
* the fact that an individual’s disorder has a name can be a comforting signal that the person may reasonably expect relief

What is generalized anxiety disorder?

an anxiety disorder marked by persistent anxiety for at least six months, and in which the individual is unable to specify the reasons for the anxiety

* FOR EX. when you are anxious about something. there is usually a cause like doing bad in school and etc. but for people with GAD there is no specific cause

Can people with GAD worry a lot?

yes, they worry even to the point where it takes a physical toll like fatigue, muscle tension, stomach problems and difficulty sleeping

What are the biological factors that play a role in generalized anxiety disorder?

* genetic predispositions
* deficiency in the neurotransmitter GABA (the brain’s brake pedal)
* respiratory problems
* problems regulating the sympathetic nervous system

What are the psychological and sociocultural factors that play a role in generalized anxiety disorder?

* harsh (or even impossible) self-standards
* overly strict, critical or cold parents
* a history controllable traumas or stressors (such as an abusive parent)

What is panic disorder?

an anxiety disorder in which the individual experiences recurrent, sudden onsets of intense terror, often without warning and with no specific cause.

* FOR EX. when you dash across the street to your dorm when a car is coming is an example of panic, but if you felt that way when there was no car or anything.. you would have panic disorder

What is panic disorder (described in lecture)?

* recurrent, unexpected (uncued aka nothing to fight and nothing to flee) panic attacks
* AND one month of concern about additional attacks (make illusory correlations with where or what happened)
* FOR EX. it happened in class so you stop going to class
* OR… worry about the implications of the attack or its consequences
* OR.. a significant change in behaviour related to the attacks

What is agoraphobia?

* anxiety about being in places/situations from which escape might be difficult or embarrassing in the event of a panic attack
* FOR EX. if they go out, they usually sit by the door and/or they usually have a safety person
* situations are avoided or endured with marked distress or anxiety about having a panic attack OR require the presence of a companion

What are some typical agoraphobic situations?

any place in public

* shopping malls
* cars
* trains
* buses
* subways
* wide streets
* tunnels
* restaurants

How do you get rid of panic disorders?

extinction method

* you need to habituate by sitting and bearing with it

What is the criteria for a panic attack?

discrete period of intense fear/discomfort in which at least 4 symptoms developed abruptly and reached a peak within 10 minutes

* palpitations, pounding/racing heart
* sweating
* trembling/shaking
* shortness of breath/smothering sensations
* feeling of choking
* chest pain/discomfort
* nausea or abdominal stress
* feeling dizzy, unsteady, faint or lightheaded
* derealization or depersonalization (you feel like you have been ejected from your body and watching yourself)
* fear of losing control or going crazy
* fear of dying
* paresthesias (numbness or tingling sensations)
* chills or hot flushes

What is a cued vs. uncued panic attack?

cued: there is a set reason why, you know why it is happening and what you are afraid of

* FOR EX. someone pointing a gun at your head or a wolf chasing after you

uncued: nothing happening or there’s not a set reason why, but you have a panic attack. there’s nothing to fight so you flee and this tells your unconcious that it was a good thing, so it increases the symptoms

* FOR EX. you are in class and nothing is currently endangering you, but you feel the symptoms of a panic attack

What is the quicksand analogy?

when you don’t get treatment immediately often because of the stigmatization of mental health

* if you get stuck in quick sand and you are about ankle deep, you can still pull yourself out, but if you get neck deep, you need to get someone else and a rope
* you need to prioritize your mental health

How do get rid of stigma?

you need to educate yourself and understand that it is a stigma

* stigma is just ignorance (lack of education)

What are the biological factors for panic disorder?

* genetic disposition (genes for hormone regulation and response to stress)
* direct action of the neurotransmitters GABA, serotonin, and norepinephrine
* increase in the brain chemical, lactate, which is responsible for the brain’s metabolism
* increase in lactate can produce panic attacks
* shares biological characteristics with physical illnesses like asthma, hypertension and cardiovascular disease

What are the psychological factors that play into panic disorder?

* classical conditioning: learned associations between bodily cues of respiration and fear can play a role in panic attacks
* increased co2 is a stimulus for fear so if you breathe faster without being scared, it can cause you to be scared
* generalization: showing a conditioned response (fear) to stimuli other than the particular one used in learning
* individuals who have panic attacks show an overgeneralization of fear of learning. why? b/c of genetic dispositions to develop associations when they encounter stressful life events

What are the sociocultural factors of panic disorder?

* women are 2x more likely to have panic disorders than men
* why? b/c of biological differences in hormones and neurotransmitters
* men and women cope with anxiety-provoking situations in different ways

What is specific phobia?

* an anxiety disorder in which the individual experiences an irrational, overwhelming, persistent fear of a particular object or situation.


* exposure to the phobic stimulus almost invariably provokes an immediate anxiety response (e.g. a panic attack)
* phobic situation/object is avoided or endured with intense anxiety and distress
* when you are so scared of something that it starts to interfere with your everyday life

What are the types of specific phobia?

1. animal
2. natural environment
3. blood-injection-injury type
4. situational (e.g. planes, elevators, driving)
5. other (e.g. choking, vomiting)

Where do specific phobias come from?

* fears plays an important role in adaptive behaviour b/c it tells us when we are in danger and when to take action
* the importance of this function tells us that fear should be learned relatively quickly b/c learning to fear things that can hurt us keeps us out of harm’s way
* specific phobias are extreme and unfortunate variants of this adaptive process

Which gender is more likely to experience specific phobias?

women

What are other explanations of why we have specific phobias?

* they are viewed as based on experiences, memories and learned associations
* FOR EX. you were attacked by birds as a kid and it was used against you and now you have a phobia of birds or you could have watched people who were scared of birds (observational learning)

Does everyone who has a specific phobia identify the experiences that caused it?

no, SO other factors can be at play, each specific phobia has its own neural correlates and some people might be prone to specific phobias

* FOR EX. your parents might have a mental disorder (even if it is not a specific phobia disorder, it can cause you to develop one)

What is social anxiety disorder (social phobia)?

an anxiety disorder in which the individual has an intense fear of being humiliated or embarrassed in social situations.

What is social phobia (explained in lecture)?

* marked and persistent fear of social or performance situations
* situations involve exposure to unfamiliar people or to possible evaluation by other
* exposure is one of the best way to get rid of anixety
* individual fear that he/she may do something humiliating or embarrassing

What are examples of social phobia?

* test anxiety
* performance anxiety
* social anxiety
* scared of evaluation by someone we want to like us because we don’t want to fall down social hierarchy

Where causes social anxiety and how does it differ from people with SAD?

* it exists in situations where we feel like we are being evaluated or judged and the fear that we will be negatively judged or evaluated causes anxiety for most people
* it differs for people with SAD b/c the level of anxiety caused by these situations can often lead to panic attacks

What biological factors play into SAD?

* genes
* the brain: the thalamus, amygdala and cerebral cortex
* oxytocin

What are some vulnerabilities that come with social anxiety disorder?

* genetic characteristics
* overprotective or reject parenting that lay a foundation of risk combined w/ learning experiences in a social context

What do people with SAD feel like SAD prevents them form doing?

They feel like it prevents them from being themselves authentically

* authenticity is strongly related to well-being b/c being who we are can buffer the effects of social conflicts

What is obsessive-complusive disorder?

psychological disorder in which the individual has anxiety-provoking thoughts that will not go away and/or urges to perform repetitive, ritualistic behaviours to prevent or produce some future situation

* in the lecture: recurrent and persistent obsessions and/or compulsions
* symptoms cause marked distress
* time consuming (more than 1 hour/day)
* interfere significantly with person’s normal routine

What are obsessions and what are compulsions?

* obsessions are recurrent thoughts
* compulsions are recurrent behaviours used to neutralize those thoughts
* people with OCD dwell on doubts and repeat behavioural routines sometimes hundreds of times a day
* only OCD when they aren’t sure if they will act on their obsession

What are obsessions, according to the lecture?

* persistent and intrusive thoughts, impulses, images (can be anything, but horrible thoughts they aren’t sure they would do. if they do have OCD, they won’t because they just get worse obsessions)
* inappropriate, caused marked anxiety or distress
* person usually attempts to ignore or suppress them
* OR neutralize them with some other thought or action

What are compulsions?

* repetitive behaviours or mental acts
* performed to prevent or reduce anxiety/distress, not to provide pleasure or gratification

What is an example of OCD / common compulsions?

* common compulsions are excessive checking, cleaning and counting
* an individual with OCD might believe that if they don’t count their steps as they walk across the room then something bad will happen

What is OCPD?

obsessive compulsive personality disorder

* the disorder where you think things have to be “perfect”

What are biological factors to OCD?

* genetic component
* low levels of the neurotransmitters serotonin and dopamine and high levels of glutamate
* neurological links: hyperactive monitoring of behaviour and brain activation during learning may predispose people with OCD to feel like something is not quite right

Using the biological factor of OCD, how might the brain work specifically for someone with OCD?

* the frontal cortex or basal ganglia are so active that numerous impulses reach the thalamus generating obsessive thoughts or compulsive actions so it fails to get the “finished” message

How does negative reinforcement work with people with OCD?

* when they are rewarded for the action, it gets rid of the aversive state of fear
* when she does the ritual and nothing bad happens, she feels like it’s because of the ritual, not knowing nothing bad would’ve happened anyway but if she doesn’t perform it so she feels anxious

What is avoidance learning and how is it an important contributor to the maintenance of compulsive symptoms?

* a powerful form of negative reinforcement that occurs when the organism learns that by making a particular response, an unpleasant or aversive stimulus can be avoided completely
* this can even be maintained in the absence of the aversive stimulus, but the avoiding organism may never know that fact

Is it true that people with OCD are stuck in a “vicious” cycle?

yes

* it is associated with reduced flexibility in learning that the rules of learned tasks have changed
* they show cognitive bias by overestimating threats and can’t just turn off negative or intrusive thoughts by ignoring them
* since they are so prone to see the outcome as worse, they are likely to have thoughts bothered about if they avoided it or not

What are the 4 OCD-related disorders?

* Hoarding disorder involves compulsive collecting, poor organization skills, and difficulty discarding, but also cognitive deficits in information-processing speed, decision making, and procrastination. Individuals with hoarding disorder find it difficult to throw things away; they are troubled by the feeling of uncertainty—the sense that they might need, for instance, old newspapers, at a later time.
* Excoriation disorder (or skin picking) refers to a particular compulsion, picking at one’s skin, sometimes to the point of injury. Skin picking is more common among women than men and is sometimes seen as a symptom of autism spectrum disorder. Infections and complications with healing are issues with this disorder.
* Trichotillomania (hair pulling) is a disorder in which the person compulsively pulls at their hair, from the scalp, eyebrows, and other body areas. Hair pulling from the scalp can lead to patches of baldness that the person may go to great lengths to disguise.
* Body dysmorphic disorder involves a distressing preoccupation with imagined or slight flaws in one’s physical appearance. Individuals with the disorder cannot stop thinking about their appearance, comparing their appearance to others, checking themselves in the mirror, and so forth. Occurring about equally in men and women, this disorder can involve maladaptive behaviours such as compulsive exercise and bodybuilding and repeated cosmetic surgery.

What is body dysmorphic disorder?

* preoccupation with an imagined defect in appearance, or if a slight physical anomaly is present, the person’s concern is excessive
* significant distress or impairment

What are sstressor related disorder?

PTSD (MDMA aka molly or magic mushrooms used to treat PTSD)

* Adjustment Disorder
* Reactive Adjustment Disorder

What is post traumatic stress disorder?

psychological disorder that develops through exposure to a traumatic event, a severely oppressive situation, cruel abuse, or a natural or an unnatural disaster.

What are symptoms of PTSD?

these can also occur in people who just hear and witness it instead of people who experience the trauma

* flashbacks in which the individual relives the event as if it is happening all over again. A flashback can make the person lose touch with reality and re-enact the event for seconds, hours, or (very rarely) days.
* Avoidance of emotional experiences and of talking about emotions with others, as well as emotional numbing.
* Feelings of anxiety, nervousness, excessive arousal, and an inability to sleep.
* Difficulties with memory and concentration, exaggerated startle response.
* Impulsive behaviour, irritability

Does PTSD follow trauma immediately after it occurs?

it can, but it can follow even months or years after the trauma

* it affects the delicate balance of neurotransmitters, hormones and other biological systems

Does every individual exposed to the same event experience PTSD? Why or why not?

no

* factors such as previous traumatic events and conditions, such as abuse and psychological disorders, cultural background and genetic predisposition can influence someone’s vulnerability to PTSD in face of stressful eventsss

What are two disorders that cause dysregulation in a person’s emotional life?

* depressive disorders
* bipolar disorders

What are depressive disorders?

psychological disorders in which the individual suffers from depression—an unrelenting lack of pleasure in life.

What are some depressive disorders?

* disruptive mood dysregulation disorder
* major depressive disorder
* persistent depressive disorder (dysthymia)
* premenstrual dysphoric disorder
* substance/medication-induced depressive disorder
* depressive disorder due to another medical condition
* other specified depressive disorder and unspecified depressive disorder

Are depressive disorders common?

cent yes

* 5.4 percent of Canadians 15 and up reported having symptoms of a mood disorder in the past 12 months and 12.6 percent adults reported the same thing

What racial groups have twice (16%) the amount of depression than the national average?

Indigenous peoples

What is major depressive disorder (MDD)>

psychological disorder involving a significant depressive episode and depressed characteristics, such as lethargy and hopelessness, for at least two weeks.

What are symptoms of MDD?

* Depressed mood most of the day
* Reduced interest or pleasure in activities that were once enjoyable
* Significant weight loss or gain or significant decrease or increase in appetite
* Trouble sleeping or sleeping too much
* Fatigue or loss of energy
* Feeling worthless or guilty in an excessive or inappropriate manner
* Problems in thinking, concentrating, or making decisions
* Recurrent thoughts of death and suicide
* No history of manic episodes (periods of euphoric mood)

What are people likely to be diagnosed with when they have less extreme depressive mood for over two years?

Persistent depressive disorder

* this disorder includes symptoms such as hopelessness, lack of energy, poor concentration, and sleep problems

What are the biological factors for depressive disorder?

* genes: vulnerability-stress association in conjunction with experience


* brain structure and function: lower brain activity in a section of the prefrontal cortex for generating actions and in regions of the brain associated with the perception of rewards
* neurotransmitters: serotonin transporter gene, too few receptors for serotonin and norepinephrine transmitters

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* they are associated with depression, but they do not cause depression. they are only associated with depression if the person’s social environment is stressful
* individuals w/ these symptoms are at a lower risk of having depression if they are in a warm, positive environment

What type of depression is a qualifier for MDD? What does this also demonstrate about biological factors in depression?

postpartum depression is a qualifier of major depressive disorder and can result in depression in women (and sometimes men by proxy) after childbirth, due to the tremendous changes in hormones and body chemistry that can occur during pregnancy and after birth.

* this also demonstrates the strong role that biological factors can play in the etiology of depression.

What are the psychological factors of major depressive disorder? What are advantages and disadvantages of this?

* one behavioural view of depression focuses on learned helplessness, an individual’s feelings of powerlessness following exposure to aversive circumstances, such as prolonged stress, over which the individual has no control.
* when people cannot control negative circumstances, they may feel helpless and stop trying to change their situation. this helplessness spirals into a feeling of hopelessness

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* one advantage to the learned helplessness approach is that because scientists can induce learned helplessness in animals, animal models can be used to examine how such experiences affect the brain and body.
* another advantage might be the ability to unlearn helplessness. If we can induce it, we can unlearn or reduce it.

What is the first cognitive explanation/views of depression?

cognitive explanations of depression focus on thoughts and beliefs that can contribute to and prolong a sense of hopelessness.

What do automatic negative thoughts reflect according to the cognitive explanation of depression?

automatic negative thoughts reflect illogical self-defeating beliefs that shape the experiences of individuals who are depressed.

* these habitual negative thoughts magnify negative experiences.
* FOR EX. a person who is depressed might overgeneralize about a minor occurrence—say, turning in a work assignment late—and think that they are worthless. The accumulation of cognitive distortions can lead to depression.

Is the course of depression influenced by the way people think?

yes

* not only that, but HOW they think
* depressed individuals may ruminate on negative experiences and negative feelings, playing them over and over again in their minds.
* this tendency to ruminate is associated with the development of depression

What is the second cognitive explanation/views of depression?

attributions

* attributional style is a person’s habitual way of explaining events in their lives

What is attributional style and what type do people with depression have? What causes do they blame it on?

* attributional style is a person’s habitual way of explaining events in their lives.


* pessimistic attributional style means blaming oneself for negative events and expecting the negative events to recur in the future.

FOR EX. the pessimist explains negative events as having internal causes (“It is my fault I failed the exam”), stable causes (“I’m going to fail again and again”), and global causes (“Failing this exam shows that I won’t do well in any of my courses”).