Ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt: Vocabulary Flashcards

Vocabulary flashcards covering key terms and concepts from the lecture notes on ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt.

Lex talionis (eye for an eye)

Principle of justice ensuring retaliation is equal to the offense; used to regulate violence in a violent society.

Covenant

A solemn agreement between two parties, often sealed in the presence of gods; can be a royal grant or mutual defense.

Covenant of royal grant

A king grants land to a high official in exchange for faithful service and military support.

Mutual defense covenant

An agreement where parties promise to defend each other against enemies.

Covenant ritual

Sacrifices (animals or offerings) to seal a covenant; oath that the gods may judge the violator.

Slavery in Mesopotamia

Society included slavery; slaves could come from war captivity or be sold into bondage due to hardship.

Self-sale into slavery

People could sell themselves into slavery during famine or extreme poverty; slavery could be part of social arrangements.

Long-distance trade

Trade networks linking Mesopotamia to distant regions (India, Afghanistan); imports: precious stones, ivory, cedar, copper, papyrus; exports: grains, oil, textiles, ceramics.

Absence of coinage

Coins were not used widely before about 500 BC; trade relied on records and barter.

Clay tablets

Primary medium for record-keeping; many thousands survive; sometimes baked to preserve; used for receipts and letters.

Cuneiform

Wedge-shaped writing system developed from pictographs; used for accounting and literature.

Papyrus

Egyptian writing material made from reeds; an early form of paper used in writing and record-keeping.

Hieroglyphics

Egyptian writing called 'holy writing'; deciphered after study of the Rosetta Stone.

Rosetta Stone

Key artifact that enabled decipherment of hieroglyphics by linking scripts to Greek; spurred interest in Egyptian history.

Polytheism

Belief in many gods; city-states often had their own patron gods and anthropomorphic deities.

Patron god

The primary deity associated with a city-state.

Ma'at

Concept (and goddess) of harmony and righteousness; living according to Ma'at promised social order and afterlife balance.

Anubis weighing of the heart

Judgment of the dead in which a sinful heart was devoured; a righteous heart led to heaven.

Osiris

God of the Nile and the afterlife; husband of Isis and father of Horus.

Isis

Goddess of the soil and fertility; wife of Osiris and mother of Horus.

Horus

God of vegetation and the sky; pharaohs were considered incarnations or representatives of Horus.

Pharaoh as Horus

Belief that the pharaoh was an incarnation or embodiment of Horus, linking kingship to divine order.

Ziggurat

Monumental step-pyramid temples in Mesopotamia; built to elevate worship closer to the heavens; Ur’s ziggurat is a famous example.

Egyptian pyramids

Large tomb structures; initially not smooth-sided, later built with polished stone; iconic pyramids at Giza reflect advanced architecture.

Hyksos

Foreign rulers who controlled parts of Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period; expelled to start the New Kingdom.

Nile irrigation and geometry

Irrigation networks and practical geometry developed to manage floods and boost agriculture; contributed to mathematical knowledge.

Epic of Gilgamesh

Ancient Mesopotamian epic about Gilgamesh’s quest for immortality; concludes that humans cannot attain eternal life; the gods alone have it.

Lunar calendar

A calendar based on the phases of the moon; reflects Mesopotamian astronomical observations.

Sexagesimal (base-60) system

Counting system using 60 as a base; underpins minutes, hours, and degrees; originated from practical counting methods.

Beer as payment

Wages paid in beer for workers; a nutritious, caloric compensation in daily life.