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Enlightenment
A philosophical movement in the 1700's that emphasized reason and the scientific method.
Social Contract
An agreement between the people and their government signifying consent to be governed.
Natural Rights
Rights granted to all people by nature or God that cannot be denied by any government.
Deism
The belief that God exists but does not intervene in the world or reveal truths.
Liberalism
A political ideology emphasizing civil rights and representative government.
Empiricism
The view that knowledge originates in experience and relies on observation.
Nationalism
A sense of commonality based on language, religion, and social customs.
Feminism
The belief that women should have the same political and economic rights as men.
Mary Wollstonecraft
An early feminist writer who advocated for women's education in 'A Vindication of the Rights of Women'.
Suffrage
The right to vote in political elections.
End of Serfdom
The major reform initiated by Russian Czar Alexander II between 1861-1865.
Declaration of Independence
The 1776 statement by the Second Continental Congress for independence from Britain.
Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
A statement of fundamental political rights adopted by the French National Assembly.
Jamaica Letter
A document written by Simon Bolivar outlining his views on the independence movement.
Reign of Terror
A period during the French Revolution (1793-1794) marked by mass executions.
Simon Bolivar
A leading military figure in South America's struggle for independence.
Toussaint L'Ouverture
Leader of the Haitian Revolution against slavery; declared himself dictator of Haiti.
Realpolitik
Practical politics where ends justify means, as used by Otto von Bismarck.
Otto von Bismarck
Chancellor who unified Germany and was a conservative nationalist.
Peninsulares
Spanish-born individuals in Latin America, occupying the highest social class.
Creoles
Descendants of Spanish-born individuals born in Latin America; resented their social status.
Industrial Revolution
A period of rapid growth in manufacturing and production starting around 1750 in England.
cottage industry
Home-based manufacturing that preceded the Industrial Revolution.
factory system
A production method that consolidated workers and machines in a single building.
seed drill
An invention by Jethro Tull that allowed for more efficient planting of seeds.
Spinning Jenny
A machine that revolutionized textile production, created by James Hargreaves.
crop rotation
The practice of alternating crops to maintain soil fertility.
Enclosure Movement
Consolidation of land in England that displaced many small farmers.
steam engine
A machine that converts energy from burning fuel into motion, improved by James Watt.
Second Industrial Revolution
A period of industrial development from 1871 to 1914, marked by advancements in various industries.
telegraph
A device for transmitting information over long distances using electric wires.
Muhammad Ali
Leader of Egyptian modernization in the early 19th century.
Meiji Restoration
Japan's effort in 1868 to modernize and eliminate the Shogunate.
Adam Smith
Scottish economist known for his book 'Wealth of Nations,' a precursor to capitalism.
Wealth of Nations
Adam Smith's book discussing free trade and laissez-faire economics.
Laissez-faire economics
An economic approach advocating minimal government intervention.
Transnational business
A business operating in multiple countries while headquartered in one.
Industrial Working Class
The lower social class formed during the Industrial Revolution.
middle class
A socio-economic class emerging during the Industrial Revolution composed of skilled workers.
Urbanization
The increase in population residing in urban areas as opposed to rural areas.
Karl Marx
Nineteenth-century philosopher and theorist known as the father of communism.
Communism
A political theory advocating for collective ownership and a classless society.
Socialism
A theory of social organization advocating for community ownership of production.
Tanzimat Reforms
A series of reforms in the Ottoman Empire aimed at modernization from 1839-1876.
Young Turks
A coalition favoring liberal reform in the Ottoman Empire established in the late 19th century.
Self-Strengthening Movement
A late 19th-century Chinese movement aimed at modernization under the Qing Dynasty.
HSBC
Established in 1865 to finance trade between Europe and Asia.
Capitalism
An economic system controlled by private owners for profit rather than by the state.
labor union
An organization of workers advocating for improved working conditions and rights.
Proletariat
Marx's term for the exploited working class.
Bourgeoisie
The middle class, including merchants, industrialists, and professionals.
