Research Methods and Perception: Empirical, Qualitative, Sleep, and Gestalt Principles

What is the primary difference between empirical and non-empirical research?

Empirical research relies on observations, measurements, or experiments, while non-empirical research relies on theory, logic, or argument.

How do qualitative and quantitative research methods differ in their focus?

Qualitative research focuses on descriptions, themes, and meaning; quantitative research focuses on numbers, measurements, and statistics.

What is the main limitation of descriptive and correlational studies?

They cannot prove causation.

What is the 'third variable problem' in research?

When two variables appear related, but a hidden third variable is actually causing both.

What is the difference between internal and external validity?

Internal validity measures confidence in cause-and-effect conclusions; external validity measures how well results generalize to real life.

What does a statistical significance level (e.g., p < .05) indicate?

That the result is unlikely to have occurred due to chance; it does not indicate the size or importance of the effect.

What is the distinction between sensation and perception?

Sensation is the detection of physical energy, while perception is the interpretation and assignment of meaning to those sensations.

How do bottom-up and top-down processing differ?

Bottom-up processing starts with raw sensory input, while top-down processing starts with expectations, experience, and context.

What are the four Gestalt principles of perceptual organization?

Proximity (grouping nearby items), Similarity (grouping similar items), Closure (filling in gaps), and Continuity (preferring smooth patterns).

What is inattentional blindness?

The failure to notice an obvious object or event because attention is focused elsewhere.

What is a perceptual set?

A mental expectation or predisposition that shapes how we perceive stimuli.

What is shape and size constancy?

The tendency to perceive objects as having a constant shape and size despite changes in the image projected on the retina.

What are the primary characteristics of REM sleep?

Active brain waves, dreaming, and temporary paralysis of the body.

What are the three main theories of why we sleep?

Restorative theory (repairs the body), Evolutionary theory (keeps us safe at night), and Memory consolidation theory (strengthens learning).

What are the three main theories of why we dream?

Freud's theory (unconscious desires), Activation-synthesis (making sense of random neural activity), and Information-processing (memory consolidation).

What are circadian rhythms?

24-hour biological cycles that regulate physiological processes like sleep, temperature, and hormones.

What is the concept of dual processing?

The idea that the mind operates on two levels simultaneously: conscious (deliberate) and unconscious (automatic).

What defines a lucid dream?

A dream in which the dreamer realizes they are dreaming and may be able to control the dream content.

What is the mechanism behind hypnosis?

A state of heightened focus and suggestibility.

What are the limitations of hypnosis?

It is not effective for recovering 'hidden' memories or forcing individuals to act against their will.

What is the current scientific consensus on subliminal messages?

Effects are weak and short-lived, and they do not effectively control behavior.

What is a reversible figure-ground image?

An image where the figure and background can be interpreted in two different ways, such as the vase/faces illusion.