Key Concepts in Ethics and Political Philosophy

Difference between act and rule utilitarianism

Act: assess each action's consequences. Rule: follow rules that generally lead to the greatest happiness.

Kant's first formulation of the categorical imperative

Act only on maxims that you can will to become universal laws.

Kant's second formulation of the categorical imperative

Treat humanity always as an end, never merely as a means.

Criticism of Kant's ethics involving the Gestapo

It's too rigid—telling the truth might endanger lives, but Kant says lying is always wrong.

Plato's view of justice in the state

Justice is when each class performs its proper role and doesn't meddle in others' roles.

Aristotle's view of political society

A community of equals aiming to live well under a rule of law and a just constitution.

Difference principle in Rawls' theory

Inequalities are just if they benefit the least well-off members of society.

Nozick's Wilt Chamberlain example

Liberty disrupts patterns. Voluntary exchanges can lead to inequality, which isn't unjust.

Theory-ladenness of observation

All observations are influenced by the observer's existing theories and beliefs.

Occam's Razor in evaluating theories

Prefer the simpler explanation that accounts for all the facts.

Anthropic principle objection to fine-tuning

We observe a life-permitting universe because only such a universe can have observers like us.