AP Psych Unit 3 (L)

developmental psychology

study of physical, intellectual, social, and moral changes over the entire life span from conception to death

temperament

a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity; an child's natural disposition to show a particular mood at a particular intensity for a specific period

easy temperament

characterized by regular bodily functions, a positive approach to new situations, adaptability, a positive mood, and a non-intense reaction to stimuli

difficult temperament (i.e., reactive temperament)

extra sensitive to sensory stimulation; overwhelmed by change in routines and new experiences; intense, inflexible reactions; adapt slowly to change, not able to calm themselves well; irregular biological rhythms, such as hunger/sleep schedules; rapid, intense, mood swings resulting in acting out or withdrawing completely

slow-to-warm-up temperament

a "slow-to-warm-up" temperament tend to be sensitive, shy, cautious, and wary of unfamiliar places and people; more likely to be acute observers, think before they act, have superior self-control, and be exceptionally compassionate and empathetic

cross-sectional research

a method of assessing developmental changes by evaluating different age groups of people at the same time

longitudinal research

a method of assessing developmental changes by evaluating the same group of people at different times in their lives

crystallized intelligence

learned knowledge and skills such as vocabulary which tend to increase with age

fluid intelligence

certain cognitive abilities requiring speed or rapid learning which tend to diminish with adult aging (e.g., memory and processing speed)

the germinal stage

the sperm fertilizes the egg, creating a zygote that travels to the uterus; the zygote divides rapidly, eventually forming two structures: the embryo and the placenta; the zygote implants in the uterine lining, and the mother's body produces hormones to support pregnancy

embryo

the developmental prenatal stage (from about 2 weeks through 2 months after fertilization) when most organs begin to develop

fetus

the developing human organism from about 9 weeks after conception to birth when organ systems begin to interact, and sex organs and sense organs become refined

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated presentation of the same stimulus

teratogen

harmful substance (drug or virus) with which contact during the prenatal period can cause birth defect(s)

rooting reflex

moving head towards mother's nipple and sucking

sucking reflex

sucking on any object that enters the mouth

the Moro reflex

outstretching arms and legs in response to a loud noise or sudden change in environment

a grasping reflex

vigorous grasping of objects that touch the infants palm

the Babinski reflex

the infant's toes will splay or fan out when the bottom of the foot is stroked

maturation

the biological growth processes that bring about orderly changes in behavior, thought, or physical growth; relatively unaffected by experience (nature argument)

pruning process

as children enter adolescence, neural pathways that remain unused in early childhood are eventually discarded

critical period

a time interval during which specific stimuli have a major effect on development that the stimuli do not produce at other times

imprinting

certain animal species (e.g., ducks, geese, etc.) develop rigid attachment to whatever (seemingly) living organism is present in their first hours of visual perception

adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

puberty

the early adolescent period marked by accelerated growth (i.e., growth spurt) and onset of the ability to reproduce; results from a surge of hormones and causing changes in mood and physiology

primary sex characteristics

the reproductive organs (ovaries, uterus, and testes) and external genitals (vulva and penis)

secondary sex characteristics

the non-reproductive sexual characteristics including developed breasts in females; facial hair, Adam's apple, and deepened voice in males; and pubic hair and underarm hair in both

spermarche

a male's first ejaculation; often occurs during sleep ("wet dream"); typically happens by about the age of 14

menarche

a female's first menstrual period; typically happens by about the age of 12.5

early adulthood

period of time that includes one's 20's and 30's

middle adulthood

period of time that includes ages 40 through 65

late adulthood

period of time that includes ages beyond that of 65 years

menopause

the cessation of the ability to reproduce accompanied by a decrease in production of female sex hormones at about age 50

the death-deferral phenomenon (Shimizu & Pelham, 2008)

over a 15-year period, 2000 to 3000 more Americans died on the two days after Christmas than on Christmas and the two days before; the death rate was also found to increase once people reached their birthdays and other important milestones

sex

the biologically-influenced characteristics (primary sex characteristics) by which people define male and female; sex is defined by one's physiology

gender

the socially influenced characteristics by which people define boy, girl, man, and woman; gender is defined by one's mind

X chromosome

sex chromosome found in both male gametes (i.e., sperm) and female gametes (i.e., ovum or eggs); females typically have two X chromosomes; males typically have one

Y chromosome

sex chromosome typically found only in male gametes (i.e., sperm); 1 chromosome out of the 46 that is not unisex; 7 weeks after conception, a single gene on the Y chromosome initiates the creation of testosterone in the testes

testosterone

important male sex hormone (actually found in all individuals); in males, initiates the growth of male sex organs (fetal period) and male sex characteristics (puberty)

aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone, either physically or psychologically

relational aggression

an act of aggression (physical or verbal) intended to harm a person's relationship or social standing

role

a set of expectations (i.e., norms) about a social position; these expectations indicate how those in the position ought to behave

gender role

a set of expectations that indicate how males and females should act, think, and feel

gender identity

a person's sense of being male, female or some combination of the two

sexual orientation

the direction of one's sexual attraction; e.g., being attracted to boys, being attracted to girls, etc.

gender typing

the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role

gender schema

a mental set that organizes one's experiences of male-female characteristics and helps the individual to think about gender identity; likely the result of numerous social influences (family, friends, teachers, government policy, media, etc.)

transgender

an overarching term referring to people whose gender identity or expression diverges from the gender-related physiological characteristics they were born with

androgyny

displaying both traditional masculine and feminine psychological characteristics (has no direct connection on sexual orientation)

asexuality

a state where an individual has no sexual feelings or desires

the fertile females theory

homosexual men are more likely to have a higher number of homosexual relatives on their mother's side than on their father's side; relatives on the homosexual's mother's side are also more likely to have a higher number of children than do the maternal relatives of heterosexual men (i.e., there appears to be an association between female fertility and rates of homosexual orientation)

the older brother or fraternal birth-order effect

males with older brothers have a higher likelihood of being homosexual (the likelihood increasing with every subsequent male child in the family) (N.B.: occurs only when boys are born to the same mother); possible explanation: as the mother's body hosts more male fetuses over a lifetime, maternal antibodies may become stronger and may prevent the fetus' brain from developing in in pattern consistent with typical male brains

constructivism

the notion that knowledge is actively constructed rather than passively absorbed

schema

framework of basic ideas and preconceptions about people, objects, and events based on past experience in long-term memory; concepts or frameworks that organize and interpret information; they are the basic building blocks of cognitive models and enable people to form a mental representation of the world

behavioral schemata

organized patterns of behavior that are used to represent and respond to objects and experiences (e.g., transporting, rotating, transforming, playing with trajectories, enveloping/enclosing, connecting/building)

symbolic schemata

internal mental symbols like images or verbal codes that one uses to represent aspects of experience (e.g., morphemes in language; general categories like "dog" and "cat")

operational schemata

internal mental activity that one performs on objects ‪of thought (e.g., the development of planning and critical thinking skills)

cognitive equilibration

balance between organization (aka equilibrium) and adaptation (aka disequilibrium); reaching equilibrium, a child's schemas can handle most of the new information that they come in contact with through assimilation

accommodation

adjustments in cognitive organization in order to meet the demands of reality (i.e., change understanding of the world to suit one's environment); e.g., a primary school student learning that some sea-dwelling creatures like dolphins and whales are not fish

assimilation

the process of fitting reality into one's current cognitive organization (i.e., using one's existing schema, one's current ways of understanding, to make sense of events in our world; interpreting new experiences using existing one's schemas); taking in new information but not changing the schema according to the new information; an infant seeing a new (small) organism for the first time, noticing its wings, its six legs, and automatically classifying it as an insect

sensorimotor stage

stage during which the infant experiences the world through senses and action patterns; progresses from reflexes to object permanence and symbolic thinking; young babies have no awareness beyond their present sensory experience; this results in a lack of object permanence

object permanence

awareness that objects still exist when out of sight; milestone of sensorimotor period; before 8-9 months, infants may fail to look for a toy that has been obstructed from vision; after 8-9 months, infants will likely continue to look for a toy even after it has been obstructed from vision (an awareness of the unseen object)

preoperational stage

stage of cognitive development during which the child represents and manipulates objects with symbols (language) and is egocentric; according to Piaget, at this stage, infants are able to represent things with words and images (e.g., the bottle of water is "heavy" and "large/tall"); children at this stage typically have difficulty with conservation tasks

conservation

principle that changes in the form of an object do not alter physical properties of mass, volume, and number

pretend play

play activities where symbolic thinking is involved (e.g., playing "house" or roleplaying professions)

parallel play

2.5-year-olds tend to engage in parallel play, in which they play next to other children but do not try to influence others; at playground, they may play beside a friend, focused on their play and oblivious to their friend's behaviors

egocentrism

seeing the world from one's own perspective; the inability to see reality from the perspective of another person (i.e., the incomplete differentiation of the self and the world, including other people); characteristic of the ‪preoperational child; e.g., inability to understand that what they know, and what others know, may be two entirely different things (i.e., theory of mind)

animism

a belief that inanimate objects are alive or have lifelike feelings and motivations

personal fable

believing that they are unique and special and what happens to "most people" would never happen to them

theory of mind

people's awareness and thoughts about their own and others mental states (including feelings, thoughts and perceptions as well as what behaviors those mental states might result in); as children grow older, they begin to anticipate how others will feel and factor those emotions into the effective ways to interact with others (i.e., they will develop theory of mind)

concrete operational stage

stage of cognitive development during which the child develops simple logic and masters conservation concepts; may still struggle to think systematically

formal operational stage

stage of cognitive development during which ‪the child begins to think logically about abstract concepts and engage in hypothetical thinking

scaffold

a framework that offers children temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking; parents and teachers, through their instruction, guidance and modeling, can provide scaffolds that increase learning efficiency and allow children to accomplish more than they would on their own (i.e., social construction of knowledge)

zone of proximal development

the range of ability that can be acquired with the assistance of adults and learning techniques (i.e., provision of scaffolds)

moral intuition

"quick gut feelings, or affectively laden intuitions"; people have the tendency to make moral judgments the same way they would make judgments about beauty or attractiveness (i.e., these judgments are largely reflexive)

moral reasoning

the subsequent attempt of an individual's mind to justify a moral judgment that has been made

moral action

taking moral considerations (i.e., intuition and reasoning) and putting them into practice

prospective memory

memory of an intention to do something; e.g., "I need to remember to submit my college application on Friday."

terminal decline

an increase in negative feelings; a lack of motivation to engage with people and activities happening around them; decline in cognitive functioning

neurocognitive disorders (NCDs) (formerly referred to as dementia)

acquired (not lifelong) disorders marked by cognitive deficits; often related to Alzheimer's disease (a type of dementia), stroke, brain tumors, brain injury or disease, or substance abuse

language

communication system based on words and grammar; spoken, written, or gestured words and the way they are combined to communicate meaning‬

phonemes (phonology)

smallest possible sound units of spoken language‬; e.g., vowel and consonant sounds‬

morphemes (morphology):

the smallest unit of language that has meaning‬; e.g., "unequivocal" - something that is clear and doesn't need further explanation; un no, not; equi equal, similar; vocal indicate, show ‬

grammar

a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others‬

semantics

a set of rules we use to derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences‬(i.e., how we derive meaning from sounds); e.g., independent of whether or not the word "cat" is ordered in a particular way in a sentence, we know the word refers to a small fluffy feline animal

syntax

rules that are used to order words into grammatically sensible sentences (i.e., how we order words into sentences); the order of the nouns, verbs, and objects is determined by the syntactic rules of a language thus assists in conveying meaning (i.e., the order of the words in a sentence tells us a lot about the grammatical function of the word, e.g., whether the word is a noun, adjective or verb)

language acquisition device (according to Chomsky)

inborn biological capacity that humans have for language (i.e., humans in infancy are capable of learning any language), often termed the LAD, which predisposes them to acquire language

universal grammar (according to Chomsky)

humans' innate predisposition to understand the principles and rules that govern grammar in all languages

receptive language

infants' ability to understand what is said to them, about them and around them

productive language

infants' ability to reproduce meaningful sounds and create novel combinations

babbling stage (canonical babbling)

a stage of speech development that is characterized by spontaneous utterance of speech sounds; these sounds are usually vowel-consonant pairs‬

the one-word stage

the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words

holophrase

single words used by infants (around the age of 1); convey desires and demands ("Mama" "Up" "Bottle")

the two-word stage

beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly in two-word statements

telegraphic speech

meaningful two-word sentences, usually a noun and a verb, and usually in the correct order uttered by two-year-olds; e.g., "Papa tired", "car go", "hand wash"

fast mapping

figuring out something about what the word refers to in its initial context of use (Ex: "Bring me the 'chromium' tray.")

less-is-more hypothesis

the limited memory capacity of young children actually helps them in language acquisition because they remember smaller, more analyzable chunks of input (Newport, 1990)

aphasia

impairment of the ability to understand (receptive) or use (expressive) language; often caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding)‬

Bronfenbrenner's (1977) ecological systems theory

Psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner's (1977) theory that different environments we encounter affect our cognitive, social, and biological development

microsystem

the setting within which the individual was behaving at a given moment in his or her life (e.g., home, school, community)