PSY 101 Test 4 Review

Personality Theory (Explains Behavior)

A system of concepts, assumptions, ideas, and principles used to understand and explain personality.

Psychoanalysis

Freudian approach to psychotherapy emphasizing exploration of the unconscious using free association, dream interpretation, resistances, and transference to uncover unconscious conflicts.

Psychoanalytic Theory

Freudian theory of personality that emphasizes unconscious forces and conflicts.

Freud

For over 50 years, he probed the unconscious mind. In doing so, he altered contemporary views of human nature. His early experimentation with a “talking cure” for hysteria is regarded as the beginning of psychoanalysis. Through psychoanalysis, he added psychological treatment methods to psychiatry.

Social Learning Theory

A theory that combines learning principles with cognitive processes, socialization, and modeling, to explain behavior, including personality.

Behaviorism

School of thought in psychology that emphasizes study of observable actions over study of the mind.

Maslow

Referred to the process of fully developing personal potentials as self-actualization. The heart of self-actualization is a continuous search for personal fulfillment

Self-actualization

The process of fully developing personal potentials.

Rogers

-Emphasized the human capacity for inner peace and happiness. The fully functioning person, he said, lives in harmony with his or her deepest feelings and impulses. Such people are open to their experiences, and they trust their inner urges and intuitions. Rogers believed that this attitude is most likely to occur when a person receives ample amounts of love and acceptance from others.
-His theory emphasizes the self, a flexible and changing perception of personal identity. Much behavior can be understood as an attempt to maintain consistency between our self-image and our actions. Your self-image is a total subjective perception of your body and personality. For example, people who think of themselves as kind tend to be considerate in most situations.

S. Freud (1856-1939) Beliefs

-Hysteria
-Physical symptoms
-No organic/physical basis
-UCS
-Early childhood experiences can impact adult behavior and adult personality
-Defense mechanisms
-Uses hypnosis to ask subjects about their symptoms of hysteria.
--They talked about childhood experiences. After getting out of hypnosis, they don’t remember what they talked about while being hypnotized.
--Psychoanalysis is born/the discovery of the unconscious mind.

Unconscious

Contents of the mind that are beyond awareness, especially impulses and desires.

Hysteria

-The presence of physical complaints for which no physical basis can be established.
--People suffering from it have physical symptoms (such as paralysis or numbness) for which no physical causes can be found. (Such problems are now called somatic symptom disorders) Freud slowly became convinced that it was related to deeply hidden unconscious conflicts and developed psychoanalysis, his “talking cure,” to help patients gain insight into those conflicts.

Freud’s Psychosexual Stages

-Oral: Birth - 1 year: Mouth

-Anal: 1 - 3 years: Anus

-Phallic: 3 - 6 years: Genitals

-Latency: 6 - 12 years: None

-Genital: 12 Years - adulthood: Genitals

Oral: Birth - 1 year: Mouth

-Oral dependent (gullible, passive, needs attention)
-Oral aggressive (exploitative, manipulative)

Anal: 1 - 3 years: Anus

-Anal retentive (stingy, orderly, compulsively clean)
-Anal expulsive (disorderly, destructive, cruel, messy)

Phallic: 3 - 6 years: Genitals

Unresolved Oedipal complex (attraction to opposite-sex parent) results in underdeveloped superego, leading to vanity, pride, narcissism (self-love)

Latency: 6 - 12 years: None

Lack of sexual fulfillment

Genital: 12 Years - adulthood: Genitals

Unsatisfying adult relationships

Three Mental Structures

-ID

-Ego

-Superego

ID

Component of Freud’s personality theory containing primitive drives present at birth. It operates on the pleasure principle—that is, it seeks to avoid pain and freely express pleasure-seeking urges of all kinds. It is self-serving, irrational, impulsive, and totally unconscious. If we were solely under control of it, the world would be chaotic beyond belief.

Pleasure principle

According to Freud, the ID's drive to avoid pain and seek what feels good.

Ego

Sometimes described as the “executive” because it is a system of thinking, planning, and problem solving that makes decisions about how to direct energies supplied by the id. The ego is guided by the reality principle, which means that it tries to accommodate the desires of the id in ways that are realistic, given the external realities of the world. It is in conscious control of the personality and often delays action until it is practical or appropriate.

Reality principle

Delaying action (or pleasure) until it is appropriate.

Superego

Represents moral conscience by acting as a judge or censor for the thoughts and actions of the ego. The superego acts as an “internalized parent” to bring behavior under control. In Freudian terms, a person with a weak superego will be a delinquent, criminal, or antisocial personality. In contrast, an overly strict or harsh superego may cause inhibition, rigidity, or unbearable guilt.

Defense Mechanisms

Mental processes that deny, distort, or otherwise block out sources of threat and anxiety.

Types of Defense Mechanisms

-Repression
-Reaction Formation
-Projection

Repression

The action or process of suppressing a thought or desire in oneself so that it remains unconscious.

Reaction Formation

Preventing dangerous impulses from being expressed in behavior by exaggerating opposite behavior.

Projection

Attributing one’s own feelings, shortcomings, or unacceptable impulses to others.

Freud's Legacy

-Psychoanalytic —> Psychodynamic
-Today, Freud’s ideas have been altered so much that few strictly psychoanalytic psychologists are left. However, his legacy is still evident in psychodynamic theory.

Psychodynamic theory

Any theory of behavior that emphasizes internal conflicts, motives, and unconcious forces

Neo-Freudians

-Psychologists who accept the broad features of Freud’s theory but have revised the theory to include the role of cultural and social factors while still accepting some of its basic concepts.
--Some well-known neo-Freudians are Alfred Adler, Anna Freud (Freud’s daughter), Karen Horney (HORN-eye), Carl Jung (yoong), Otto Rank (rahnk), and Erik Erikson.

Passive learning

Students are provided with knowledge by someone who has expertise.

Active learning

In which students work to construct knowledge for themselves.

John Watson

-Objected strongly to the study of the “mind” or conscious experience and launched a school of thought referred to as behaviorism. He believed that introspection was unscientific precisely because there is no objective way to settle disagreements between observers. He realized that he could study the behavior of animals even though he couldn’t ask animals questions or know what they were thinking.
--For him and many other behaviorists, psychology was not the study of mind; it was the study of behavior. In this way, the behaviorists championed the use of observational methods of gathering data, which are still widely used by psychologists today.
--Behavior is a manifestation of conditioning (learned).

I. Pavlov

Studied digestion by putting dogs in harnesses and placing food on their tongues. By arranging for a tube to carry saliva from the dogs’ mouths to a lever that activated a recording device, he was able to objectively measure the resulting flow of saliva. However, after repeating his procedure many times, Pavlov noticed that his dogs began salivating before the food reached their mouths. Later, the dogs even began to salivate when they saw Pavlov enter the room. Now, Pavlov believed that salivation is an automatic, inherited reflex. It really shouldn’t change from one day to the next. His dogs were supposed to salivate when he put food in their mouths, but they were not supposed to salivate when they merely saw him. This was a change in behavior due to experience—in other words, the dogs were learning!

Classical Conditioning (A.K.A. Pavlovian Conditioning or Respondant Conditioning)

A form of learning in which reflex responses are associated with new stimuli.

Before:
- Food (Unconditioned stimulus) → Salivation (Unconditioned response)
- Bell (Neutral stimulus) → No response

After: Bell (Conditioned stimulus) → Salivation (Conditioned response)

Generalization

Tendency to respond to stimuli similar to a conditioned stimulus.

Extinction

Weakening of a learned response by repeatedly presenting the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus.

Extinction example

If Leonard rings the bell many times and does not follow it with lemon juice, Sheldon’s learned expectation that “bell precedes lemon juice” will weaken. As it does, he will lose his tendency to salivate when he hears the bell.

Spontaneous Recovery

Reappearance of a learned response after its apparent extinction.

B. F. Skinner

Studied simple behaviors under carefully controlled conditions. In addition to advancing psychology, he hoped that his radical brand of behaviorism would improve human lives. He did no studies on actual humans.

Science of Behavior

Eliminates all subjective and internal states. Only behavior can be seen.

Radical Empiricist

A behaviorist approach that rejects both introspection and any study of mental events, such as thinking, as inappropriate topics for scientific psychology.

Operant Conditioning

Type of associative learning process through which the strength of a behavior is modified by reinforcement or punishment. It is also a procedure that is used to bring about such learning. The probability that various responses (like pressing a bar) will be made is influenced by the consequences of those responses. Operates on the environment. Two types of consequences are important in operant learning: reinforcement and punishment.

Operant Conditioning Chamber (Skinner Box)

An apparatus designed to study operant conditioning in animals.

Reinforcement

Any event that reliably increases the probability or frequency of responses it follows.

Positive reinforcement

Occurs when a response is followed by a reward or other positive event.

Negative reinforcement

Occurs when a response is followed by an end to discomfort or by the removal of an unpleasant event.

Punishment/Positive Punishment

Any event that follows a response and decreases its likelihood of occurring again; the process of suppressing a response.

Negative Punishment (Response Costs)

Removal of a positive reinforcer after a response is made.

Reinforcement Schedules

Rules or plans for determining which responses will be reinforced. A protocol for determining how often and under what conditions responses will be rewarded. Behavior learned on a variable reinforcement schedule is highly extinction resistant.

Continuous reinforcement

A pattern in which a reinforcer follows every correct response.

Partial reinforcement

A pattern in which only a portion of all responses are reinforced.

Partial reinforcement effect

Responses acquired with partial reinforcement are more resistant to extinction.

Four most basic reinforcement schedules

-Fixed ratio (FR) schedule
-Variable ratio (VR) schedule
-Fixed interval (FI) schedule
-Variable interval (VI) schedule

Fixed ratio (FR) schedule

An arrangement where a set number of correct responses must be made to get a reinforcer. For example, a reinforcer is given for every four correct responses.

Variable ratio (VR) schedule

An arrangement where a varied number of correct responses must be made to get a reinforcer. For example, a reinforcer is given after three to seven correct responses: the actual number changes randomly.

Fixed interval (FI) schedule

An arrangement where a reinforcer is given only when a correct response is made after a set amount of time has passed since the last reinforced response. Responses made during the time interval are not reinforced.

Variable interval (VI) schedule

An arrangement where a reinforcer is given for the first correct response made after a varied amount of time has passed since the last reinforced response. Responses made during the time interval are not reinforced.

Humanistic Psychology

-An approach that focuses on human experience, problems, potentials, and ideals. The rejection of psychoanalysis, Neo-Freudians, social learning, and behaviorism.
--Maslow: Father of Humanistic Psychology
--Rogers: Contributor

Rejection of Psychoanalysis and Learning Theory/Behaviorism

Don’t like that behavior is determined by a learning history (behaviorism) or unconscious forces (psychoanalysis).

Some Defining Characteristics of Humanistic Psychology

-Freedom of choice
-Human lives are not scripted
-Human lives are a reflection of choices made
-Despise animal research/comparisons to humans
-Don’t dwell on the past for too long

Psychological disorders

A significant impairment in psychological functioning.

Cultural

The idea that judgments are made relative to the values of one’s culture.

Statistical

Abnormality defined on the basis of an extreme score on some dimension, such as IQ or anxiety.

Medical – Organic Basis (Model)

\-B(f) Biology (Brain)
\-Phy-chem
\-Abnormal: Disease/Illness
\-Therapy: Drugs, Surgery, Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
\-Psychiatry

Non-Medical (Model)

-B(f) life lived
-Relationships
-Environment
-Abnormal disturbance of self/world
-Therapy: Psychotherapy
-Psychology

Classification

Like physical illness, mental illness is typically diagnosed by establishing the presence and/or absence of a number of symptoms, assessing how long the client has experienced those symptoms, and the extent to which the symptoms are interfering with their everyday life

Positive symptoms

Examples such as delusions and hallucinations, are excesses or exaggerations compared to normal behavior.

Negative symptoms

Absences or deficiencies compared to normal behavior.

DSM 5

-The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) is the handbook used by healthcare professionals in the United States and much of the world as the authoritative guide to the diagnosis of mental disorders. DSM contains descriptions, symptoms and other criteria for diagnosing mental disorders.
--Influences most activities in mental health settings—from diagnosis to therapy to insurance company billing. As even a quick scan of it makes clear, a wide variety of psychological disorders are currently diagnosed and treated; hundreds of specific disorders are organized into over 20 major categories.

Comorbid

The simultaneous presence in a person of two or more mental disorders.

Anxiety

-Primary Symptom: High anxiety or anxiety-related distortions of behavior.
-Typical Signs of Trouble: You have anxiety attacks and feel like you are going to die; or you are afraid to do things that most people can do.
-Examples: Generalized anxiety disorder, Panic disorder, Agoraphobia, Specific phobia, Social phobia

Types of Anxiety Disorders

\-Generalized anxiety disorder
\-Panic disorder
\-Agoraphobia
\-Specific phobia
\-Social anxiety disorder

\-Obsessive Compulsive Disorder

Generalized anxiety disorder

Definition: Psychological disorder characterized by nearly constant, exaggerated worries. Symptoms: You have been extremely anxious or worried for six months.

Panic disorder

Definition: Chronic state of anxiety, with brief moments of sudden, intense, unexpected panic. Symptoms: You are anxious much of the time and have sudden panic attacks. You are afraid that your attacks might occur in public places, so you rarely leave home.

Agoraphobia

Definition: The fear that something extremely embarrassing will happen if one leaves the house or enters an unfamiliar situation; excessive, irrational fear of being in public places. Symptoms: You fear that something extremely embarrassing will happen if you leave home (but you don’t have panic attacks).

Specific phobia

Definition: Persistent fear and avoidance of a specific object or situation. Symptoms: You have an intense fear of particular objects, activities, or locations.

Social anxiety disorder

Definition: An intense, irrational fear of being observed, evaluated, embarrassed, or humiliated by others in social situations. Symptoms: You fear social situations in which people can watch, criticize, embarrass, or humiliate you.

Types of Anxiety-Related Disorders

-Adjustment
-Somatic Symptom Disorders
-Dissociative Disorders
-Conversion Disorder

Conversion Disorder

Definition: A bodily symptom that mimics a physical disability but is actually caused by anxiety or emotional distress. Symptoms: You are “converting” severe emotional conflicts into symptoms that closely resemble a physical disability. Conversion is psychosomatic.

Trauma and Stress Related: Adjustment and PTSD

-Primary Symptom: Difficulty dealing with a traumatic or stressful event.
-Typical Signs of Trouble: You persistently re-experience a traumatic event; you have an exceptionally strong negative reaction to a traumatic event such as becoming highly anxious, depressed, or, being unable to sleep.
-Examples: Adjustment disorder, Acute stress disorder, Post-traumatic stress disorder

Adjustment Disorder

Definition: Emotional disturbance characterized by ongoing stressors within the range of common experience. Too many issues have accumulated or there are no coping strategies. It is difficult to adjust to change. Symptoms: A normal life event has triggered troublesome anxiety, apathy, or depression.

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

-Primary Symptom: Unnecessarily repetitive behavior.
-Typical Signs of Trouble: You spend unusual amounts of time doing things such as washing your hands or counting your heartbeats.
-Examples: Obsessive compulsive disorder, Hoarding disorder
-Obsession is mental, compulsion is behavioral.

Somatic Symptom Disorder

-Primary Symptom: Body complaints without an organic (physical) basis.
-Typical Signs of Trouble: You feel physically sick, but your doctor says nothing is wrong with you; you suffer from pain that has no physical basis; or you are preoccupied with thoughts about being sick.
-Examples: Somatic symptom disorder, Factitious disorder, Conversion disorder

Dissociative Disorder

-Primary Symptom: Amnesia, feelings of unreality, multiple identities.
-Typical Signs of Trouble: There are major gaps in your memory of events; you feel like you are a robot or a stranger to yourself; others tell you that you have done things that you don’t remember doing.
-Examples: Dissociative amnesia, Dissociative identity disorder

Personality Disorder

-Primary Symptom: Unhealthy personality patterns.
-Typical Signs of Trouble: Your behavior patterns repeatedly cause problems at work, at school, and in your relationships with others.
-Examples: Antisocial personality disorder, Borderline personality disorder
-Long-standing, inflexible ways of behaving that create a variety of problems.

Types of Personality Disorders

-Paranoid: You deeply distrust others and are suspicious of their motives, which you perceive as insulting or threatening.
-Schizoid: You feel very little emotion and can’t form close personal relationships with others.
-Schizotypal: You are a loner, you engage in extremely odd behavior, and your thought patterns are bizarre, but you are not actively psychotic.
-Antisocial: You are irresponsible, lack guilt or remorse, and engage in antisocial behavior, such as aggression, deceit, or recklessness.
-Borderline: Your self-image, moods, and impulses are erratic, and you are extremely sensitive to any hint of criticism, rejection, or abandonment by others.
-Histrionic: You are dramatic and flamboyant; you exaggerate your emotions to get attention from others.
-Narcissistic: You think that you are wonderful, brilliant, important, and worthy of constant admiration.
-Avoidant: You are timid and uncomfortable in social situations and fear evaluation.
-Dependent: You lack confidence, and you are extremely submissive and rely on others excessively (clinging).
-Obsessive-compulsive: You demand order, perfection, control, and rigid routine at all times.

Antisocial Disorder

You are irresponsible, lack guilt or remorse, and engage in antisocial behavior, such as aggression, deceit, or recklessness.

Schizophrenia

Severe disorder characterized by disturbances in thought, perceptions, emotions, and behavior.

Schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders

-Primary Symptom: Loss of contact with reality.
-Typical Signs of Trouble: You hear or see things that others don’t; your mind has been playing tricks on you.
-Examples: Delusional disorder, Schizophrenia, Brief psychotic disorder

Delusional Disorder

A psychosis marked by severe delusions of grandeur, jealousy, persecution, or similar preoccupations.

Delusions

Strongly held thought or belief that is at odds with reality.

Hallucinations

Perception with no basis in reality.

Depressive Disorders

Class of disorders marked by chronic feelings of sadness and despondency.

Types of Depressive Disorders

-Persistent depressive disorder (dysthymia)
-Major depressive disorder

Persistent depressive disorder (dysthymia)

Definition: Moderate depression that persists for two years or more. Symptoms: You feel down and depressed more days than not; your self-esteem and energy levels have been low for many months. (Moderate Depression)

Major depressive disorder

Definition: Mood disorder in which the person has suffered one or more intense episodes of depression. Symptoms: You feel extremely sad, worthless, fatigued, and empty; you are unable to feel pleasure; you are having thoughts of suicide. (Major Depression)

Bipolar and Related Disorders

Mood disorders characterized by alternating periods of mania and depression.