Mass Communications and Society Exam 3

media bias

a real or perceived viewpoint held by journalists and news organizations that slants news coverage unfairly, contrary to professional journalism's stated goals of balanced coverage and objectivity

going viral

the phenomenon in which a media item spreads rapidly from person to person via the internet

meme

a media item of cultural interest that spreads through repetition and replication via the internet

news leak

secret information deliberately given to journalists with the hope that they will publish the item

opinion poll

usually conducted by a professional polling organization, a poll asking members of the public their opinions on issues or political candidates

partisan press

a press, such as colonial newspapers, typically aligned with a particular political party and presenting information to help its cause, with no sense of objectivity or balance in news coverage

public opinion

the notion that the public, as a group, can form shared views or ideas about topics and that these ideas guide the public's actions

push poll

a type of political advertising that appears to be a telephone poll but is actually a telemarketing campaign to sway voters by making a favored candidate look good or by misrepresenting the opposition

smart mob

a term coined by Howard Rheingold to define a group of people communicating with each other via text messaging or wireless networks to coordinate their activities

sound bite

The length of time a news subject is allowed to speak without being edited by a reporter. It also has come to refer to short utterances that are catchy and designed to capture the media's attention.

trial balloon

leaking information to the press about a proposed plan or idea to see how the public will respond (planned, authorized, getting a feel for public reaction)

agenda setting

media's role in deciding which topics to cover and consequently which topics the public deems important and worthy of discussion

Bobo doll studies

Media-effects experiments in the 1950s that showed children who watched TV episodes that rewarded a violent person were more likely to punch a Bobo doll than children who saw episodes that punished a violent person.

critical theory

a theoretical approach broadly influenced by Marxist notions of the role of ideology, exploitation, capitalism, and the economy in understanding and eventually transforming society

cultivation analysis

a theory of media effects that claims television cultivates in audiences a view of reality similar to the world portrayed in television programs

cultural studies

an interdisciplinary framework for studying communication that rejects the scientific approach while investigating the role of culture in creating and maintaining social relations and systems of power

culture industry

a term coined by the Frankfurt School to describe how media companies produce or "make" culture in the same way that other companies produce products

digital divide

the gap between regions and demographics that have access to modern, digital-communications technology and those that have limited or no access

encoding/decoding

a theoretical model that states media producers encode media products with meanings, decoded in various ways by various audiences

epistemology

a study or theory of the limitations and validity of knowledge; more simply, a way of, or framework for, understanding the world

ethnography

a variety of qualitative research techniques that involve the researcher's interacting with participants, either through observation, participation, interviews, or a combination of methods

focus group

A small group of people assembled by researchers to discuss a topic. Their interactions are closely observed, recorded, and analyzed to determine people's opinions.

framing

the presentation and communication of a message in a particular way that influences our perception of it

hypodermic-needle model

a model of media effects, also called the "magic bullet," that claims media messages have a profound, direct, and uniform impact on the public

ideology

a comprehensive and normative body of ideas and standards held by an individual or a group

information society

a society where information production has supplanted industrial production, dramatically transforming cultural, economic, and political activity

James Carey

communications scholar and historian who shaped a cultural-studies approach to communication theory

longitudinal study

a study that gathers data on subjects, sometimes the same subjects, over a long period of time

mean-world syndrome

a syndrome in which people perceive the world as more dangerous than it actually is, the result of viewing countless acts of media violence

media ecology

the study of media environments and their effects on people and society

participant-observation

a qualitative research technique in which researchers participate as members of the group they are observing

political economy

an area of study inspired by Marxism that examines the relationship between politics and economics with media ownership and the influences they all have on society and perpetuating the status quo

positivism

a view, common among scientists in the physical or natural sciences and many social sciences, that affirms an objective reality to be discovered and explained through rigorous scientific research

postmodernism

a broad category of viewpoints that rejects grand narratives attempting to explain the world and absolute truths because truth is relative and unknowable

postpositivism

a view that agrees largely with positivism but also recognizes knowledge that may be revealed through scientific inquiry

pragmatism

a school of thought affirming truths found in actions that work and rejecting the possibility of overarching or purely objective notions of truth

propaganda

The regular dissemination of a belief, a doctrine, a cause, or information, with the intent to mold public opinion.

qualitative research

a method of inquiry favored in the social sciences that explores typically unstructured phenomena through interviews, focus groups, and participant observation amount other techniques that produce descriptive rather than predictive results

quantitative research

a method of inquiry favored in the physical sciences that focuses on numerical data and statistical measures to describe phenomena. Researchers often attempt to prove or disprove a hypothesis through the empirical method, particularly controlled experimentation.

random sample

a sample in which every person has an equally probable chance of being selected, intended to represent the entire population of study.

sampling error

error in a statistical analysis that results from selecting a sample that does not represent the entire population

simplified communications model

Developed by Wilbur Schramm in 1954 and based on the mathematical theory of communication. It includes a source, who encodes a message, or signal, which is transmitted (via the media or directly via interpersonal communication) to a destination, where the receiver decodes it.

social constructionism

a view that claims much or all of what we know and understand about the world, including scientific knowledge, is constructed through social interactions and language

spiral of silence

a theoretical construct that explains why people may be unwilling to publicly express opinions they feel are in the minority

technological determinism

the belief that technology causes certain human behaviors

third-person effect

the tendency for people to underestimate the effect of a persuasive message on themselves while overestimating its effect on others

users-and-gratifications research

a branch of research on media effects that examines why people use media, what they do with media rather than what media do to them

Alien and Sedition Act

a series of four acts passed by the U.S. Congress in 1798 that, among other things, prohibited sedition, or spoken or written criticism of the U.S. government, and imposed penalties of a fine or imprisonment on conviction. Although they expired in 1801, other sedition acts have been passed periodically, especially during times of war.

censorship

the act of prohibiting certain expression or content. Censors usually do not target the whole publication, program, or website but seek to prohibit some part of the content

Children's Television Act (CTA)

Created in 1990, it limits the amount of commercial content that programming can carry, forces stations to carry certain amounts of educational programming for children sixteen and under, and includes other provisions to protect children.

chilling effect

the phenomenon that occurs when journalists or other media producers decide not to publish stories on a topic after a journalist has been punished or jailed for such a story

clear and present danger

A restriction on speech when it meets both of the following conditions: (1) it is intended to incite or produce dangerous activity (as with falsely shouting "Fire!" in a crowded theater), and (2) it is likely to succeed in achieving the purported result.

copyright

form of intellectual property law that protects the right to use, publish, reproduce, perform, display, or distribute a literary of artistic work, such as a piece of writing, music, film, or video

1998 digital millennium copyright act (DMCA)

A 1998 act of Congress that reformed copyright law comprehensively to update it for the digital age. Key provisions addressed the circumvention of copyright-protection systems, fair use in a digital environment, and internet service providers' liability for content sent through their lines.

criminalized some copyright violations

digital rights management (DRM)

technologies that let copyright owners control the level of access or use allowed for a copyrighted work, such as limiting the number of times a song can be copied

digital watermark

Computer code (usually invisible but sometimes visible) inserted into any digital content - images, graphics, audio, video, or even text documents - that authenticates the source of that content

equal-time rule

The requirement that broadcasters make available equal airtime, in terms of commentaries and commercials, to opposing candidates running for election. It does not apply to candidates appearing in newscasts, documentaries, or news-event coverage.

fair use

Allowable use of someone else's copyrighted work that does not require payment of royalties, with four factors that determine if something fall under fair use or violates copyright

using copyrighted work without permission, for commentary, news, education, search engines, parody, satire, research, etc.

fairness doctrine

Adopted by the FCC in 1949, it required broadcasters to seek out and present all sides of a controversial issue they were covering. It was discarded by the FCC in 1987.

Federal Communications Commission (FCC)

Established in 1934, the principal communications regulatory body at the federal level in the United States

Federal Trade Commission (FTC)

The principal commerce regulatory body, established in 1914, at the federal level in the United States

First Amendment

guarantees that congress shall make no law restricting freedom of speech, press, or religion

fourth estate

another term for the press, or journalism, which acts as a fourth branch of government, one that watches the other branches (executive, legislative, and judicial)

General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR)

A 2018 regulation enacted in the European Union requiring all enterprises, including U.S.-based news media and digital companies such as social media, to comply with heightened requirements protecting user data and other digital considerations

Hays Code

A code established in 1930 by the movie industry to censor itself regarding showing nudity or glorifying antisocial acts. Officials for the Hays Office has to approve each film distributed to a mass audience

indecent speech

Language or material that, in context, depicts or describes, in terms patently offensive as measured by contemporary community standards for the broadcast medium, sexual or excretory organs or activities

intellectual property (IP)

ideas that have commercial value, such as literary or artistic works, parents, trademarks, business methods, and industrial processes

network neutrality

The principle that broadband networks should be free of restrictions of content, platforms, or equipment and that certain types of content, platforms, or equipment should not get preferential treatment on the network

obscenity

One of the forms of speech not protected by the First Amendment and thus subject to censorship. Although an exact definition of the term has been difficult to achieve in various court cases, generally a three-part standard is applied for media content: It must appeal to prurient interests as defined by community standards, it mush show sexual conduct in an offensive manner, and it must on the whole lack serious artistic, literary, political, or scientific value.

open access

A system that makes information accessible to all to discourage power imbalances that may arise from unequal access

patent

A form of intellectual property law that protects the right to produce and sell an invention

preferred-position balancing theory

A legal theory that says that a balance must be struck between speech and other rights, although speech has a preferred position

prior restraint

When the government prevents or blocks the publication, broadcasting showing, or distribution of media content, whether in print, over the air, in movie theaters, or online

radio act of 1912

the act assigned frequencies and three- and four-letter codes to radio stations and limited broadcasting to the 360-meter wavelength

radio act of 1927

An act of congress, that created the Federal Radio Commission, intended to regulate the largely chaotic airwaves and based on the principle that companies has a civic duty to use airwaves, a limited public good, responsibly

sedition

speech or action that encourages overthrow of a government or that subverts a nation's constitution or laws

shield law

a law intended to protect journalists from legal challenges to their freedom to report the news

slander

a type of defamation that is spoken, as opposed to written (libel), and that damages a person's reputation or otherwise causes harm

Telecommunications Act of 1996

The first major regulatory overhaul of telecommunications since 1934, designed to open the industry to greater competition by deregulating many aspects of it

third-party cookies

Cookies put on a computer by those other than the websites being visited, such as advertisers

trademark

A form of intellectual property law that protects the right to use a particular sign, logo, or name

V-chip

Computer device that enables parents or any other viewer to program a TV set to block access to programs containing violent or sexual content based on the program rating

astroturfing campaign

a movement or campaign that looks as though it was created by concerned citizens as a grassroots movement when in fact it was actually created or controlled by an organization with a vested interest in the outcome

categorical imperative

In ethical thought, Kant's concept or an unconditional moral obligation that does not depend on an individual's personal inclinations or goals

ethical consumerism

a kind of activism in which consumers buy only products that they believe are produced ethically

greenwashing

the practice of companies making themselves or their products appear to be organic, environmentally friendly, or supportive of free trade when in fact they are not

puffery

A type of advertising language that makes extravagant and unrealistic claims about a product without saying anything concrete

social marketing

Advertising and marketing techniques that persuade people to change bad or destructive behaviors or adopt good behaviors

straw donor

a person who uses someone (who has already hit their limit) else's money to make a political contribution

Political Action Committee (PAC)

an interest group that raises funds and donates to election campaigns (can donate unlimited money to candidates or parties)

leaks

unauthorized (officially), when information that is not supposed to be out for the public is released to the public

stonewalling

A candidate or politician refusing to speak to members of the press about specific subjects (topics) or issues that are potentially embarrassing or damaging to their career

Or a candidate or politician refusing to speak to specific members of the media (this can also be called "blacklisting" particular journalists or publications)

News/media blackouts

In the US - not publishing information that might harm active troop actions (once military operation is finished they can release information)

In authoritarian countries, it can mean restricting access to information to control people (ex: censoring or turning off internet)

Communications Act of 1934

the far-reaching act that established the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) and the federal regulatory structure for U.S. broadcasting

Section 312 of the Communications Act of 1934

radio and TV stations must allow candidates to purchase "reasonable amount of time" for aids (political ads should be about the same time as regular ads)

Section 315 of the Communications Act of 1934

it mandates during elections, broadcast stations must provide equal opportunities and response time for qualified political candidates (equal access clause)

Tornillo Opinion

print publications do not have to provide "equal time" to all candidates in news coverage, but they do in advertising (similar to section 315 - just for print instead of broadcast media)

Citizens United v Federal Election Committee (2010)

affirmed that PACs can donate unlimited money to candidates

major criticisms of the ways the media covers political campaigns

most campaign coverage is about "who is winning" and should be about "what are the issues and why are they important to Americans?"

527 financing

independent PACs can raise unlimited funds