AP PSYCHOLOGY UNIT 1

Nature (Heredity)

genetics or predisposed characteristics that influence physical, behavioral, and mental trait processes.

Nurture (Environment)

the environmental factors and experiences that shape an individual's characteristics and behaviors throughout life.

Nature (Heredity)

genetics or predisposed characteristics that influence physical, behavioral, and mental trait processes.

Nurture (Environment)

the environmental factors and experiences that shape an individual's characteristics and behaviors throughout life.

Genome

The set of instructions for making you is called your DNA, which includes all your genes. Each cell has a nucleus with 46 chromosomes (23 from each parent). Women have two X chromosomes, while men have one X and one Y chromosome.

Evolutionary psychologists

organisms inherit genes that help them survive and increase their chances of spreading their genes through having children.

Charles Darwin

theorized that organisms inherit from their ancestors’ genes and that natural selection drives evolution and adaptation.

Natural Selection

the biological and physical traits that lead to an organism’s increased survival and reproduction will be the traits that will eventually be passed onto future generations.

Monozygotics (1 egg; same sex)

genetically identical twins raised together or raised apart.

Dizygotic

fraternal twins, they only share 50% of their genes (they are not genetically more similar than regular siblings)

Diathesis

genetic predisposition or vulnerability to developing a specific mental disorder.

Epigenetics

the study of environmental influences on gene expression occurring without DNA.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

made up of the brain and spinal cord. It sends out orders to the body.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

consists of different nerves that branch off from the brain and spine. It connects the CNS to all body’s organs and muscles.

Nervous system

it uses two types of nerves to deliver information, these nerves are known as afferent neurons which are also known as sensory neurons and efferent neurons which are also known as motor neurons.

Afferent neurons (Sensory neurons)

sends signals from the sensory receptors to the central nervous system. Afferent approaches the brain. A = Approach (Afferent).

Efferent neurons

sends signals from the central nervous system to the peripheral nervous system. Efferent exits the brain. E = Exit (Efferent).

Somatic nervous system (SNS)

also known as the skeletal nervous system, includes your five senses and skeletal muscle movement. These movements happen consciously and voluntarily. 

Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

controls involuntary activities, this is what makes sure your heart keeps beating, your stomach keeps digesting, and you keep breathing.

Sympathetic division

it mobilizes your body and gets it ready for action, this makes your heart beat faster, your eyes dilate, and increases your breathing.

Parasympathetic division

it relaxes the body, it slows your heart rate; increases your digestion, and helps focus on saving and storing energy.

Neuron

a nerve cell that is the basic building block of the nervous system.

Galil cells

Support neurons by providing structure, insulation, waste removal, and nutrients—helping the nervous system work properly.

Neural firing

the process of communication between neurons through electrical impulses and neurotransmitters.

Synapse

the gap or space between the tip of the sending (presynaptic) neuron and the dendrite of the receiving (postsynaptic) neuron.

Neurotransmitter

the chemical messenger travels across the synapse and binds to receptor sites on the receiving neuron.

Cell body

the cells life; its support center.

Dendrites

receive messages from other cells; branching extensions of neurons.

Axon

passes messages away from the cell body to the axon terminals.

Neural impulse

action potential; electrical signal traveling down the axon.

Myelin Sheath

covers the axon of some neurons and help speed neural impulse.

Multiple sclerosis

a disease that leads the immune system to attack and destroy myelin sheath throughout the nervous system.

Myasthenia Gravis

Antibodies attack the places where the chemical acetylcholine is supposed to go, making it harder for muscles to move or get strong.

Excitatory Neurotransmitter

increase the likelihood of neural firing

Glutamate

an excitatory neurotransmitter involved in learning and long-term memory. Too little can cause concentration problems; too much may lead to seizures or migraines.

Norepinephrine

An excitatory chemical that helps with the fight-or-flight response, attention, and alertness. Too little is linked to depression; too much can cause anxiety and mania.

Inhibitory neurotransmitter

decreases the likelihood of neural filling.

GABA

main inhibitory transmitter; balances out excitement, and sleep. undersupply: seizures, tremors, and insomnia. oversupply: increase in anxiety.

Serotonin

Inhibitory. regulates mood, sleep, and appetite. undersupply: depression. oversupply: nervousness and insomnia.

Dopamine

Excitatory and Inhibitory. motivation, reward, and motor control. undersupply: Parkinson’s. oversupply: schizophrenia and ADHD.

Acetylcholine

Both excitatory and inhibitory; it helps with muscle movement, learning, and memory. Too little is linked to Alzheimer’s, while too much can cause paralysis.

Endorphins

Excitatory and inhibitory chemicals that act as natural pain relievers and boost feelings of pleasure. Too little may lead to depression; too much can cause anxiety and restlessness.

Substance P

Excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitter that helps send pain signals to the brain; too little reduces pain sensitivity, while too much is linked to depression.

Agonists

mimic or enhance neurotransmitter effects (activates neural firing).

Antagonists

block transmitter effects (blocks neural firing)

Reuptake inhibitors

block the reabsorption of neurotransmitters back into the releasing neuron, prolonged neurotransmitter activity.

Stimulants

increase arousal and activity

Caffeine

Stimulants. mild, not that addictive; increases alertness and wakefulness.

Nicotine

Stimulants. mild not that addictive; arousal and relaxation, sense of well-being.

Cocaine

Stimulants. highly addictive, rush of euphoria, confidence, energy.

Metamphetamine

Stimulants. euphoria, alertness, energy

Ecstasy

Stimulants.emotional elevation, disinhibition.

Depressants

reduce neural activity and have sedating effects.

Alcohol

Depressant. initial high followed by relaxation and disinhibition. Affects judgement, coordination, and memory.

Heroin

Depressant. rush of euphoria, relief from pain.

Hallucinogens

a substance capable of producing a sensory effect in the absence of an actual stimulus.

Marijuana

Hallucinogens. contains THC which affects sensory processing, judgement, and memory.

LSD and psilocybin (“magic mushrooms”)

Hallucinogens. cause vivid hallucinations and feeling of dissociation from reality.

Opioids

powerful pain relievers that induce euphoria and relaxation.

Hormones

Chemical messengers made by glands that travel through the bloodstream to affect behavior and mental processes—like neurotransmitters, but slower and longer-lasting.

Adrenaline (epinephrine)

Hormone. triggers “fight or flight” response during stress.

Leptin

Hormone. controls feelings of fullness to regulate appetite and body weight.

Ghrelin

Hormone. stimulates hunger and food-seeking behavior; helps body store fat; plays roles in controlling sugars and how your body releases insulin.

Melatonin

Hormone. regulates sleep cycles based on light exposure; synchronize circadian rhythms.

Oxytocin

Hormone. promotes social bonding, trust, and maternal behavior (boding hormone).

Cartisol

Hormone. maintains homeostasis; is a stress hormone.

Lesioned

skulls drilled into the skill when brain tissue is destroyed in our to modify behavior.

Association areas

are parts of the brain that help you do things like learn, remember, think, and talk — not move or feel.

Biological perspective

focuses on how the body and brain enable emotions, memories, and sensory experiences, and how our genes and environment influence our individual differences.

Biopsychosocial approach

evaluate how different aspects of human behavior are influenced by a combination of biological, psychological, and social factors. B

Biological factors

genes, hormones, neurotransmitters, brain activity.

Psychological factors

emotions, cognitive processing, motives.

Social factors

family/cultural influences, peer pressure, and etc.

Neuroplasticity

refers to the brain’s ability to change, build, and recognize after damage or experience.

Neurogenesis

when the brain will try to mend itself by reorganizing existing tissue and produces new neurons.

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

a non-invasive method of studying brain activity by measuring electrical signals from the scalp.

Magnetoencephalography (MEG)

a brain imaging technique that measures the magnetic fields generated by the brain’s electrical activity.

Computed tomography (CT)

a medical imaging technique used to create detailed, three-dimensional images of the brain or other soft tissues.

Position emission tomography (PET)

a neuroimaging technique that uses radioactive tracers to visualize brain activity and metabolic changes.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

a non-invasive imaging technique used to visualize the brain’s structure and, in some cases, its function.

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

measures small changes in blood flow that occur with brain activity.

Hindbrain

the lowest level and oldest structure of the brain. consists of structures involved with survival functions (brain stem).

Midbrain

involved with movement, sensation, and communication between hindbrain and the forebrain.

Forebrain

the largest and most complex part of the brain, involved in memory, emotion, reasoning, personality, communication, complex thought and other cognitive functions.

The brain stem

Located at the base of the skull, just above the spinal cord; controls automatic survival functions and helps regulate consciousness.

Reticular Formation

a nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal. if damaged, state of permanent sleep or wakefulness.

Medulla

the based of the brainstem that controls breathing and heartbeat. if damaged, death or life support.

Pons

connects hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain together. serves as a communications and coordination center between the two hemispheres of the brain.

The Thalamus

Located at the tip of the brainstem, directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla, also receives sensory information from all senses except smell.

The Cerebellum

Section at the rear of the brain stem; located at the back of the brain, one of the first parts of the brain impacted by alcohol. it coordinates movement and balance, processes sensory input, judgment of time, enables nonverbal learning and memory.

The Limbic system

A neural system location below the cerebral hemispheres that is associated with emotions and drives.

Amygdala

responsible for survival emotions of fear and aggression.

Hippocampus

responsible for processing and storing explicit memories of facts and events.

Hypothalamus

below the thalamus; direct several maintenance behaviors like eating, drinking, and maintaining optimal body temperature.

The corpus callosum

network of fibers connecting the two hemispheres of the brain together, allowing for communication between them.

Pituitary Gland

"Master gland" because it controls other glands in the body. It helps regulate growth, metabolism, reproduction, and blood pressure by releasing hormones. It works under the direction of the hypothalamus.

Pineal Gland

Produces melatonin, regulating the body’s sleep cycle.

The cerebral cortex

the thin, outer layer of the brain that controls thinking, memory, attention, language, and awareness. It's made up of billions of nerve cells and is divided into four main parts, or lobes.

Frontal lobe

Controls thinking, planning, decision-making, and personality. Also helps with movement and speaking clearly.

Parietal lobe

Processes touch, pain, temperature, and where your body is. Helps link what you feel with how you move.

Temporal lobe

handles hearing, memory, and understanding language.

Occipital lobe

processes what you see, like color, shape, and motion.