Experimental Psych EXAM 1

Why is psychology not considered common sense?

Because many beliefs that feel intuitive fail when tested empirically.

What is psychology best described as?

A method of thinking, not a list of facts.

What does it mean to say psychology is a framework for evaluating evidence?

It provides systematic rules for judging whether claims are supported.

What sources of belief does psychology often contradict?

Intuition, personal experience, and authority.

Why do beliefs that "feel right" often fail?

Human intuition is biased and unreliable.

What is empiricism?

The belief that knowledge should be derived from systematic observation.

Why are psychologists called empiricists?

They rely on observation rather than intuition or authority.

What counts as empirical observation?

Human senses and instruments that extend them.

Give examples of instruments used in psychology.

Questionnaires, timers, behavioral coding, scales, brain imaging tools.

What do empiricists reject as primary evidence?

Anecdotes, intuition, and authority alone.

Why is empiricism central to scientific psychology?

It allows claims to be tested, replicated, and corrected.

What is the core takeaway of psychology as a way of thinking?

Intuition does not equal truth.

Who are research producers?

Scientists who design studies, collect data, analyze results, and report findings.

What skills are required of research producers?

Random assignment, accurate measurement, ethics, and data analysis.

Who are research consumers?

People who critically evaluate research claims.

Where do research consumers encounter research claims?

Media, social media, education, therapy, policy, and business.

What is the key question for research consumers?

Does the evidence actually support the claim?

Why must research consumers be critical?

Many claims sound scientific but are unsupported.

Can one person be both a research producer and consumer?

Yes, most people are both at different times.

Why is research literacy important for society?

It informs policy, health decisions, and public understanding.

What happens when research consumers are not critical?

Misinformation spreads and ineffective or harmful practices persist.

What mindset defines a good research consumer?

Skeptical but open to evidence.

Why is personal experience unreliable as evidence?

It lacks comparison groups and contains confounds.

What is a comparison group?

A group that shows what would have happened otherwise.

Why does personal experience lack comparison groups?

People experience only one condition.

What is a confound?

An alternative explanation that threatens internal validity.

Why do confounds prevent causal conclusions?

Multiple variables change at the same time.

What historical example illustrates the danger of relying on intuition?

Radical mastectomy used without comparison groups.

What did later research show about radical mastectomy?

It was no more effective than less invasive treatments.

What intuitive belief exists about venting anger?

That it reduces aggression.

What did Bushman's catharsis study show?

Venting anger increases aggression.

Which group showed the most aggression in the catharsis study?

Participants who punched a bag while imagining the insulter.

Which group showed the least aggression?

Participants who sat quietly.

What general lesson do these examples teach?

Compelling stories can be empirically wrong.

What does it mean that psychological research is probabilistic?

It explains patterns and tendencies, not certainties.

Do individual exceptions invalidate research findings?

No.

What is confirmation bias?

Favoring evidence that supports existing beliefs.

What does it mean to be persuaded by a good story?

Accepting claims because they sound compelling rather than because they are supported.

Why are vivid anecdotes misleading?

They are memorable but unrepresentative.

What is overconfidence bias?

Overestimating the accuracy of one's judgments.

Why are humans prone to intuitive bias?

Cognitive shortcuts prioritize speed over accuracy.

How does scientific research counter bias?

Through systematic control, measurement, and replication.

Why can science still be wrong sometimes?

Scientists are human and methods have limitations.

What corrects scientific errors over time?

Replication and peer review.

What mindset should scientists maintain?

Organized skepticism.

What is the theory-data cycle?

The process by which theories generate predictions that are tested with data.

What are the steps of the theory-data cycle?

Theory → research questions → hypotheses and design → data → theory revision.

Where do research questions come from?

Existing theories and prior evidence.

What role do hypotheses play?

They make theories testable.

What is meant by supporting versus non-supporting data?

Whether results align with theoretical predictions.

Why is the theory-data cycle continuous?

Evidence leads to refinement or rejection of theories.

Why is falsifiability essential?

Scientific theories must be capable of being proven wrong.

What everyday analogy explains the theory-data cycle?

Troubleshooting by testing possible explanations.

Why should scientists know where they are in the theory-data cycle?

To interpret findings appropriately.

Can data exist without theory?

No, data are guided and interpreted by theory.

Can theories exist without data?

Not scientifically.

What happens when data contradict a theory?

The theory must be revised or rejected.

Why is the theory-data cycle self-correcting?

Errors are exposed through repeated testing.

What are Merton's norms?

Ideals that guide scientific conduct.

What is universalism?

Scientific claims are judged by evidence, not the identity of the researcher.

What is communality?

Scientific knowledge is shared publicly.

What is disinterestedness?

Minimizing personal gain or bias in research.

What is organized skepticism?

Critical evaluation of all scientific claims.

Are Merton's norms always followed?

No, they are ideals rather than guarantees.

Why do Merton's norms still matter?

They define standards for good scientific practice.

What is a limitation of empirical approaches?

Not all questions are testable with scientific methods.

How does science differ from journalism?

Science emphasizes uncertainty, peer review, and replication.

Why should consumers be cautious of science reporting in the media?

Journalism may oversimplify or exaggerate findings.

What is a variable?

Anything that can vary with at least two levels.

What is a level of a variable?

A specific value of a variable.

What is a constant?

A variable with only one level.

What is a measured variable?

A variable observed as it naturally occurs.

What is a manipulated variable?

A variable assigned by the researcher.

What does manipulation require?

Random assignment.

Why can't all variables be manipulated?

Ethical or practical constraints.

What is a conceptual variable?

An abstract construct.

What is an operational definition?

The specific way a construct is measured or manipulated.

Can a construct have multiple operational definitions?

Yes.

Why is operationalization important?

It affects construct validity.

What is measurement?

Assigning numbers or categories to variables.

Why must measurement be systematic?

To reduce bias and error.

What is the key concern in measurement?

Representativeness.

What is a frequency claim?

A claim about how common something is.

How many variables are in a frequency claim?

One.

What type of validity matters most for frequency claims?

Construct validity.

What is an association claim?

A claim about a relationship between variables.

What design supports association claims?

Correlational designs.

What types of associations exist?

Positive, negative, and zero.

Why does association not imply causation?

There is no manipulation or control of confounds.

What is a causal claim?

A claim that one variable causes another.

What words often signal causality?

Causes, leads to, prevents, reduces.

What is required for a causal claim?

Manipulation, random assignment, and control.

What validity matters most for causal claims?

Internal validity.

What does a scatterplot display?

The relationship between two variables.

What does each dot in a scatterplot represent?

One participant.

What indicates the strength of a correlation?

The tightness of clustering around a line.

What is a curvilinear relationship?

A non-linear association.

Can correlations be used for prediction?

Yes, statistically.

What happens when a correlation is zero?

There is no predictive relationship.

What is statistical validity concerned with?

The accuracy of numerical conclusions.