Psychology Test 1

structural organisation of the nervous system

Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Central Nervous System (CNS)

-consists of the brain and spinal cord

-command centre of the body

-interprets sensory input and issues commands based on current conditions, knowledge and past experiences

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

-consists of all the nerves outside the CNS

-connects the CNS to the rest of the body

What are the two parts of the PNS

Somatic and Autonomic

Somatic Nervous System (SNS)

-responsible for carrying sensory and motor information to and around the CNS

-sends messages to the skeletal system, which controls our voluntary movements

What are the two main types of neurons in the (SNS)

Motor Neurons and Sensory Neurons

Motor Neurons

-carries information from the brain and spinal cord to the rest of the body

Sensory Neurons

-carries information from the nerves to the brain and spinal cord

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

-transmits messages from the CNS to the smooth muscles

-regulates involuntary functions

ANS is divided into two different nervous systems

Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous Systems

Sympathetic Nervous System

-regulates fight or flight

-prepares the body to expend energy to respond to environmental threats

-When action is needed, the sympathetic system triggers a response

-e.g., accelerating heart rate, increasing breathing rate

Parasympathetic nervous system

-rest and digest system

-maintains normal body functions, conserves physical resources

-After the threat has occurred, this system will slow the heart rate and breathing.

-allows our body to return to a normal resting state

Neurons

cells of the nervous system that communicate with each other, as well as muscle and gland cells.

structure of a neuron

Dendrites

extensions of the cell body that receive neurotransmitters from the presynaptic neurons and convert them into electrical nerve impulses that are conducted towards the cell body.

Soma (cell body)

contains the nucleus that controls the activities of the neuron.

Axon

The long projection of a neuron that conducts electrical nerve impulses and carries them away from the cell body

axon terminals

The enlarged end points of axon branches that store neurotransmitters and release them into the synaptic cleft.

myelin sheath

The fatty covering of the axon acts as an insulator, protecting the axon from stimuli that could interfere with electrical nerve impulse transmission.

function of sensory neurons

neurons that process sensory information from the sense organs and carry the sensory messages to the CNS

function of motor neurons

neurons that carry motor messages from the CNS to the rest of the body.

interneurons

neurons that act as the connection between sensory neurons and motor neurons and transfer messages from the sensory neurons to the motor neurons within the CNS.

Direction of Neural Transmission

It travels in one direction. from the dendrites to the soma, where it is converted into the action potential, where it continues down the axon to the axon terminal, where it triggers the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft

action potential

The electrical impulse that travels along the axon of neurons towards the axon terminal, where it causes the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft.

Electrochemical signal

The combination of electrical nerve impulses and neurotransmitters found within and between neurons

role of synapse

converting electrical signals into chemical or direct electrical messages to transfer information between cells

Role of neurotransmitters

allow neurons to communicate across synapses, influencing everything from movement and mood to heart rate and cognitive function.

Hindbrain

The lower back part of the brain that coordinates sensory and motor messages entering and leaving the spinal cord, and is responsible for balance and coordination

medulla

The lowest part of the brain stem that relays information between the spinal cord and the brain and regulates the respiratory and cardiovascular systems.

Cerbellum

The structure in the lower part of the brain is involved in balance, judging distance, and coordination of fine motor movement.

mid brain

The top portion of the brainstem that receives sensory messages from all senses, except smell and sends information to the forebrain.

reticular formation

The network of nuclei located within the length of the brainstem helps maintain wakefulness and alertness.

Forebrain

The largest part of the brain that plays a key role in cognition, emotion, behaviour, and sensory processing.

Hypothalamus

The structure sitting below the thalamus that regulates sleep, eating, body temperature, and sex drive.

Thalamus

a double-lobed structure located just above the brainstem that receives sensory information, except smell, and transmits information to the cerebral cortex.

cerebral cortex

The outermost layer of the brain is made up of nerve tissue that is responsible for high-order processes.

What are the 4 lobes of the brain

frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital

frontal lobe

The pair of lobes located at the front of the cerebral hemispheres is responsible for higher-order executive functions and voluntary movement.

parietal lobe

The pair of lobes located behind the frontal lobes, on the top of the head, is responsible for processing and integrating sensory information.

temporal lobe

The pair of lobes on the outer sides of the brain is responsible for processing auditory information and the comprehension of speech, and is involved in memory.

occipital lobe

The pair of lobes at the back of the brain is responsible for processing visual information.

Broca's area

a region within the left frontal lobe that controls the fine muscles responsible for the production of articulate speech.

Wenicke's area

a region within the left temporal lobe responsible for the comprehension of language and the production of meaningful speech.

pre-frontal cortex

The front layer of the frontal lobes coordinates executive functions.

primary motor cortex

a strip of cerebral cortex running through the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movement of the body.

primary sensory cortex

a strip of the cerebral cortex running through the parietal lobes that perceives and processes sensory information.

primary auditory cortex

An area within both temporal lobes that perceives and processes auditory information that is received from the ears.

primary visual cortex

An area within both occipital lobes that perceives and processes visual information that is received from the eyes.

computed tomography (CT)

an imaging technique that generates still pictures of the brain using x-rays and computer technology.

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

an imaging technique that produces pictures of the brain using a strong magnetic field and radio waves.

functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

a functional imaging technique that uses radio waves and strong magnetic fields to monitor blood flow.

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

a functional imaging technique that measures electrical brain activity in real time.

adaptive plasticity

the ability of neural connection in the brain to reorganise in response to learning new information, or to compensate for lost functions and take advantage of remaining functions.

developmental plasticity

the ability of neural connections in the brain to reorganise in response to sensory input from the enviroment.

proliferation

the growth and division of cells, including neurons, that leads to the increase in total cell number.

migration

the movement of neurons throughout the brain.

synaptogenesis

electrochemical messages sent between neurons forming connections.

synaptic pruning

the reduction in the number of neurons, allowing remaining neural connections to strengthen and grow in complexity.

myelination

the growth of myelin over the axons of neurons.

effect of changes to the amygdala during adolescence

leading to heightened emotions, risk-taking, and increased sensitivity to social stimuli.

effect of changes to the pre-frontal cortex during adolescence

enhances neural efficiency but often lags behind the emotional limbic system

Non-experimental

research where the IV cannot be manipulated, a cause and effect relationship cannot be found and participants cannot be randomly allocated

strengths of nonexperimental research

allows for the observation of naturally occurring behavior without the need to create a controlled setting.

limitations of non-experimental research

Cannot establish cause-and-effect relationships.

longitudinal study

A study design where data is collected more than once, using the same participants.

application of longitudinal study

This study is often used in psychology to study developmental trends across the lifespan.

method of longitudinal study

Data is collected from a group of participants over a number of years

strengths of longitudinal study

Developmental trends can be studied over a lifetime, and the frequency, timing, or duration of events can be assessed.

limitations of longitudinal study

-it takes a long time to get results

- Participants may drop out of the study along the way.

cross-sectional study

A study design where data is collected once from participants.

application of the cross-sectional study

They are often used to measure the prevalence of health outcomes, understand determinants of health, and describe features of a population.

method of cross-sectional study

Data from participants is collected at one point in time. Participants may be from one sample or multiple.

strengths of cross-sectional study

fast and inexpensive

limitations of cross-sectional study

doesnt show individual differences, susceptible to cohort effects

types of data collection

qualitative and quantitative

Qualitative Data

descriptive information in the form of words.

Quantitative Data

information in the form of numbers that can be counted.

Objective Data

data based on facts that can be supported through observation and measurements.

Subjective Data

data based on personal opinions and judgements.