Psychology Key Concepts: Research, Brain, Development, and Personality

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Critical thinking

The objective analysis and evaluation of an issue in order to form a judgment.

Correlation

A statistical measure that indicates the extent to which two or more variables fluctuate together.

Placebo

A substance with no therapeutic effect used as a control in testing new drugs.

Longitudinal design

A research design that involves repeated observations of the same variables over long periods.

Mean

The average of a set of numbers, calculated by dividing the sum of all values by the number of values.

Median

The middle value in a list of numbers sorted in ascending or descending order.

Mode

The value that appears most frequently in a data set.

Variance

A measure of how far a set of numbers are spread out from their average value.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest values in a data set.

Standard deviation

A measure of the amount of variation or dispersion in a set of values.

Independent variable

The factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

Dependent variable

The outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated.

Neurons

Cells in the nervous system that communicate with each other and other cells, primarily through chemical means.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers used in the body to transmit signals across synapses between neurons.

Sympathetic Nervous System

The part of the autonomic nervous system responsible for inducing a state of arousal.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

The part of the autonomic nervous system responsible for conserving energy and inducing a state of rest and relaxation.

Evolutionary psychology

The study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.

Piaget's theory of cognitive development

A theory that outlines the stages of cognitive development in children.

Assimilation

Interpreting new experiences in terms of existing schemas.

Accommodation

Adapting current schemas to incorporate new information.

Kohlberg's theory of moral development

A theory that describes the stages of moral reasoning and ethical behavior.

Classical conditioning

A type of learning in which two or more stimuli are linked to elicit a response.

Operant conditioning

A type of learning in which behavior is influenced by reinforcement or punishment.

Discrimination

The ability to differentiate between the conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli.

Reinforcement schedules

A pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced.

Equity

A condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it.

Self-disclosure and vulnerability

Factors contributing to love.

Positive Support

Factors contributing to love.

The just-world phenomenon

The tendency for people to believe that the world is just and people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get.

The bystander effect

The tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present.

The chameleon effect

Helps us to create a sense of similarity, trust, and understanding between people, including subtle cues of emotion such as tone of voice.

The fundamental attribution error

The tendency, when analyzing others' behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition.

Freudian personality structure

Includes Id, Ego, and Superego, each with different roles in personality.

Id

Strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives; cares only about immediate pleasure, unconscious.

Ego

The 'executive' part of the personality, which mediates demands of id, superego, and reality; partly conscious.

Superego

Represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment and for future aspirations; partly conscious.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs

A pyramid of human needs, beginning with basic psychological needs which must be met before people can fulfill higher level safety and psychological needs.

Self-Actualization

The ultimate physiological need that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; it is the motivation to fulfill one's potential.

Self-Transcendence

The striving for identity, meaning, and purpose beyond the self.

Defense mechanisms

Psychological strategies used to cope with reality and maintain self-image.

Humanistic perspective on personality

Views personality as a drive toward self-actualization and growth, emphasizing that people are inherently good and possess free will.

Eclectic therapy

A therapeutic approach that combines elements from various schools of thought and techniques to create a customized treatment plan for each individual patient.

Carl Rogers

Founder of humanistic psychology.

Tardive Dyskinesia

An iatrogenic disorder that results in involuntary repetitive body movements, which may include grimacing, sticking out the tongue or smacking the lips, which occurs following treatment with medication.