Psychopathology

What are the definitions of abnormality?

Statistical infrequency
Deviation from social norms
Failure to function adequately
Deviation from ideal mental health

What is psychopathology?

scientific study of psychological disorders

What is the major difference with identified physical illnesses and mental illnesses?

With physical illnesses, we can identify certain signs and symptoms that help us determine if someone is ill.
But with mental illnesses, it is hard to decide if someone behaviour is sufficiently different

What is statistical infrequency as a definition of abnormality?

If according to data a characteristic is statistically rare, someone with that characteristic can be classed as abnormal

What is a normal distribution?

A "normal" distribution is also known as a bell-shaped curve or Gaussian curve. In a Gaussian or normal distribution, the mean , mode and median would all have the same (or similar) value and would look like the figure.

What are examples in which statistical infrequency can be used to define abnormality?

IQ
Intellectual disability disorder

Explain IQ (& IDD) and how it can be used to describe statistical infrequency as a definition of abnormality?

The average IQ is set at 100. In a normal distribution, most people (68%) have a score the range of 85 to 115. Only 2% of people have a score below 70. The individuals scoring below 70 are very unusual or 'abnormal' and are liable to receive a diagnosis of a psychological disorder - IDD

What are the strength of using statistical infrequency as a definition of abnormality?

Statistical deviation is a practical and useful way of identifying whether symptoms should be classified as abnormal
An assessment can be made of how different a patients behaviour is from statistical norms

What are weaknesses of using statistical infrequency as a definition of abnormality?

• Usual characteristics can be positive - Infrequent characteristics can be positive as well as negative. Although statistical infrequency can form part of assessment and diagnostic procedures, it is never sufficient as the sole basis for defining abnormality
• It doesn't distinguish between desirable and undesirable behaviours.
• Determining the cutoff point - How different to the average does it have to be to be called abnormal
• Labelling - Do unusual people benefit from the label of abnormality

What is deviation of social norms as a definition of abnormality?

Groups of people choose to define behaviour as abnormal on the basis that it offends their sense of what is 'acceptable' or the norm.
Norms are specific to the culture that we live in, so there are relatively few behaviours a considered universally abnormal

What are examples in which deviation from social norms can be used to define abnormality?

Antisocial personality disorder

Explain Antisocial behaviour and how it can be used to describe deviation from social norms as a definition of abnormality?

A person with antisocial personality disorder (psychopathy) is impulsive, aggressive and irresponsible. The DSM-5 says that one important symptom of antisocial personality disorder is an 'absence of prosocial internal standards associated with failure to conform to lawful and culturally normative ethical behaviour'.
We are making the social judgement that psychopaths are abnormal because they don't conform to our moral standards.

What is the DSM-5

The manual used by psychologists and psychiatrists to diagnose mental disorders.

What are the strength of using deviation from social norms as a definition of abnormality?

• This distinguishes from desire able and non-desirable abnormal behaviours
• Takes account to the effect that the behaviour has on other people - behaviour is identified as abnormal if it break the rules put in place by society in order to help that society run smoothly
• It is extremely useful in psychiatry evaluations for schizophrenic disorders

What are the weaknesses of using deviation from social norms as a definition of abnormality?

• Susceptible to abuse - The problem with deviation from social norms is that it varies over time. What is social acceptable now may not have been socially acceptable 50 years ago
• Definitions of devious behaviour are based on current social morals and attitudes.
• allows society to exclude people not following current trends
• deviance is related to context and degree what is seen as deviant behaviour is related to the context that the behaviour is displayed

What is cultural relativism?

judging a culture using its own standards instead of your own

How is cultural relativism a weakness of defining abnormality using deviation from societal norms?

Social norms differ in different cultures and therefore what is seen as abnormal behaviour will differ in different cultures. There are no universal standards or rules for labelling behaviour as abnormal behaviour that is classified as a normal in one country may not be classified as abnormal in another country disorders are diagnosed in different ways in different places by different groups. This means that a person displaying some behaviour may be classified as mentally ill in one culture but not in another culture.

How do you write an evaluation paragraph?

PEE
Point - A strength is
Example - This can be seen in
Evaluation - This is a strength

What is failure to function adequately as a definition of abnormality?

A person may cross the line of abnormality at the point when they can no longer cope with the demands of everyday life. We might decide that someone is not functioning adequately when they are unable to maintain basic standards of nutrition and hygiene.
This failure to function adequately will cause distress to the individual and/or distress to the people around them.

What is the GAF scale?

global assessment of functioning scale

Explain the GAF

The doctor can:

• Talk to the person
• Interview the person's family member or caretakers
• Review the person's medical records
• Review a person's police or court records detailing their behaviour history
  The patient is then given a score from 100 - 0

How does the scoring in the GAF work?

100 Superior functioning with no symptoms that impair functioning
1 A person is in almost constant danger of hurting themselves or other, has made a serious suicidal act with clear expectation of death, or both
0 There's inadequate information to assess the person

What are some examples in which failure to function properly can be used as a definition of abnormality?

Intellectual disability disorder

Explain Intellectual Disability Disorder as a failure to function adequately?

On the previous spread we looked at the example of intellectual disability disorder and saw that one of the criteria for diagnosis was having a very low IQ. However, a diagnosis would not be made on this basis only - an individual must also be failing to function adequately before a diagnosis would be given.

What are the strengths of using failure to function adequately as a definition of abnormality??

• The GAF provides a standardised way of measuring the extent of failing to function adequately
  All doctors treating the patient would have a good idea of the extent of how much the illness was impacting on the patient's life
• Failure to function adequately takes the personal experiences of the patient into account. The patient is experiencing distress and therefore would agree that they need help
• It represents a sensible threshold for when people need professional help.

What are the weaknesses of using failure to function adequately as a definition of abnormality??

• Reliability
• Scale is subjective as 2 different doctors could assign two different scores
• Scale fluctuates over time (you could get different scores on different days)
• Abnormal behaviour doesn't not always affect a person's ability to function in everyday life. For examples, some functioning alcoholics complete daily tasks while addicted to alcohol
• Likewise some clearly abnormal behaviour may not be associated with failing to function adequately
• Sometimes failing to function adequately may not be a sign of abnormality (grieving)
• Cultural relativism
• It is easy to label non-standard lifestyle choices as abnormal

Explain how cultural relativism can be related to using failing to function adequately as a definition of abnormality?

What is regarded as normal functioning is related to societies ideas about how ones life should be lived. The 'failure to function adequately' criteria is likely to result in different diagnosis when applied to people from different cultures. The standard of one culture is being used to measure the behaviour of someone from another culture (ethnocentrism )

What is ethnocentrism?

The belief that our own group or culture is superior to all other groups or cultures

What is deviation of ideal mental health as a definition of abnormality?

A different way to look at abnormality is to ignore the issues of what makes someone abnormal but instead think about what makes anyone 'normal'. Once we have a picture of how we should be psychologically healthy then we can begin to identify who deviates from this ideal.

Who formed the ideal mental health?

Marie Jahoda

When did Marie Jahoda form the ideal mental health?

1958

What was Marie Jahoda's criteria for ideal mental health?

• Self attitudes: High self esteem and a strong sense of identity
• Personal growth and self actualisation: the extent to which an individual develops their full capabilities
• Integration: Such as being able to cope with stressful situations
• Autonomy - Being independent and self regulating
• Having an accurate perception of reality
• Mastery for the environment : including the ability to have relationships. Function at work, adjust to new situations and solve problems.

What are the strengths of using deviation from ideal mental health as a definition for abnormality?

• It is a positive approach which focuses on desirable rather than the undesirable behaviours and therefore any therapy based on it would focus on the positive behaviours.
• It is a comprehensive definition as it provides a checklist against which we can assess ourselves and others a discuss psychological issues with professionals.

What are the weaknesses of using deviation from ideal mental health as a definition for abnormality?

• According to this criteria, most people are abnormal to a certain degree. Can we achieve all this? How many do we have to be lack for us to be seen as abnormal?
• It is difficult to measure the concepts and this makes the definition less useful in practice
• Cultural relativism

What are the different characteristics of phobias?

Behavioural characteristics of phobias
Emotional characteristics of phobia
Cognitive characteristics of phobias

What can the behavioural characteristics of phobias be split into?

Panic
Avoidance
Endurance

Explain panic as a behavioural characteristic of phobias

A person with a phobia might panic is response to he presence of the phobic stimulus. Panic may involves a range of behaviours including crying, screaming or running away. Children may react different for example by freezing, clinging or having a tantrum

Explain avoidance as a behavioural characteristics of phobias

Unless the person is making a conscious effort to face their fears they tend to go to a lot of effort to prevent coming into contact with the phobic stimulus. This can make it hard to go about daily life

Explain endurance as a behavioural characteristic of phobias

The alternative behavioural response to avoidance is endurance. This occurs when the person chooses to remain in the presence of the phobic stimulus.

What can the emotional characteristics of phobias be split into?

Anxiety
Fear
Emotional response is unreasonable

Explain anxiety as an emotional chracteristics of phobias?

Phobias are classed as anxiety disorders. By definition then they involve an emotional response of anxiety, an unpleasant state of high arousal. This prevents a person relaxing and makes it very difficult to experience any positive emotion. Anxiety can be long term.

Explain fear as an emotional characteristic of phobias

Although in everyday speech we might use the terms 'anxiety' and 'fear' interchangeably they do have distinct meanings. Fear is the immediate and extremely unpleasant responses we experience when we encounter or think about a phobic stimulus. It is usually more intense but experiences for shorter periods than anxiety

Explain emotional response is unreasonable as an emotional chracteristics of phobias

The anxiety or fear is much greater than is 'normal' and disproportionate to any threats posed.

What are the cognitive chracteristics of phobias split into?

Selective attention to the phobias stimulus
Irrational beliefs
Cognitive distortions

Explain selective attention to the phobic stimulus as a cognitive characteristic of phobias?

If a person can see the phobic stimulus it is hard to look away from it. Keeping our attention on something real dangerous is a good thing as it gives us the best chance of reacting quickly to a threat but it is not so useful when the fear is irrational

Explain irrational belief as a cognitive characteristic of phobias?

A person with a phobia may hold unfounded thoughts in relation to the phobic stimuli. This kind of belief increases the pressure on the person

Explain cognitive distortions as a cognitive characteristic of phobias?

The perceptions of a person with a phobia may be inaccurate and unrealistic.

What are the different chracteristics of depression?

Behavioural characteristics of depression
Emotional
Cognitive

What can the behavioural chracteristics of depression be split into?

Activity levels
Disruption to sleep and eating behaviour
Aggression and self harm

How can activity levels be a behavioural chracteristics of depression

Typically people with depression have reduced levels of energy making them lethargic. This has a knock on effect with People tending to withdraw from work education and social life. In extreme cases this can be severe that the person cannot get out of bed.
In some cases, depression can lead to the opposite effect known as Psychomotor agitation. Agitated individual struggle to relax and end up pacing up and down the room.

What is psychomotor agitation?

nail biting, pacing, finger-tapping, or other tension-relieving activity

How can disruption to sleep and eating behaviour be a behavioural chracteristics of depression?

Depression is associated with changes to sleep behaviour. A person may experience reduced sleep (insomnia) particularly premature waking or an increased need for sleep (hypersomnia). Similarly appetite and eating may increase or decrease leading to weight gain or loss. The point is that such behaviours are disrupted by depression.

How can aggression and self harm be behavioural chracteristics for depression?

People with depression are often irritable and in some cases they can become verbally or physically aggressive. This can have serious effects on a number of aspects of their life. Depression can also lead to physical aggression directed against the self. This includes self harm often in the form of cutting or suicide attempts

What are emotional characteristics of depression be split into?

Lowered moods
Anger
Lowered Self-esteem

How can lowered mood be an emotional chracteristics of depression

Lowered mood is a defining emotional element of depression but it is more pronounced that in the daily kind of experience of feeling lethargic and sad. People with depression often describe themselves as 'worthless' and 'empty'

How can anger be an emotional chracteristics of depression

Although people with depression tend to experience more negative emotions and fewer positive ones during episodes of depression, this experience of negative emotions is not limited to sadness. People with depression also frequently experience anger and sometimes extreme anger. This can be directed at the self or others. On occasion such emotions lead to aggressive or self harming behaviour which is why this characteristic appears on the behavioural characteristics as well

How can lowered self-esteem be an emotional characteristics of depression?

Self-esteem is the emotional experience of how much we like ourselves. People with depression tend to report reduced self-esteem, in other words they like themselves less than usual. This can be quiet extreme, with some people with depression describing a sense of self-loathing

What can the cognitive characteristics of depression be split into?

Poor concentration
Attending to and dwelling on the negative
Absolutist thinking

Explain poor concentration as a cognitive characteristic of depression

Depression is associated with poor levels of concentration. The person may find themselves unable to stick with a task as they usually would, or they might find it hard to make decisions that they would normally find straightforward. Poor concentration and poor decision making are likely to interfere with the individuals work

Explain attending to and dwelling on the negative as a cognitive characteristic of depression

When experiencing a present episode people are inclined to pay more attention to the negative aspect of the situation and ignore the positives in other words they tend to see a glass as half empty rather than half full.
People with depression also have a bias towards recording unhappy events rather than happy ones - the opposite bias that the most people have when not depressed

Explain absolutist thinking as a cognitive characteristic of depression

Most situations are not all good or all bad, but when a person is depressed they tend to think in these terms. This is sometimes called 'black and white thinking' . This means that when a situation is unfortunate they tend to see it as an absolute disaster

What does behavioural mean?

Ways in which people act

What does emotional mean?

related to a person's feelings or mood

What does cognitive mean?

Refers to the process of 'knowing', including thinking, reasoning, remembering and believing

What is depression?

A mental disorder characterised by low mood and low energy levels

What is phobias?

A irrational fear of an object or situation

What is OCD?

obsessive compulsive disorder is an anxiety disorder characterised by obsessive thoughts & compulsive behaviours

What is a compulsion?

A behaviour so something you do

What is an obsession

A cognition so it takes place in the mind

What are the different characteristics of OCD?

Behavioural
Emotional
Cognition

What can the behavioural chracteristics of OCD be split into?

Compulsions are repetitive
Compulsions reduce anxiety
Avoidance

Explain compulsion are repetitive as a behavioural characteristic of OCD?

Typically people with OCD feel compelled to repeat a behaviour.

What are some examples in which the repetition of compulsions are chracteristics of OCD?

Handwashing
Counting
Praying
Tidying/Ordering groups of object such as CD collections

Explain compulsions reduce anxiety as a behavioural chracteristics of OCD?

Complusive behaviours are performed in an attempt to manage the anxiety produced by obsessions.

What are some examples in which complusion reducing anxiety is a behavioural chracteristics of OCD?

Complusive handwashing is carried out as a response to an obsessive fear of germs

Explain avoidance as a behavioural chracteristics of OCD?

The behaviour of people with OCD may also be characterised by their avoidance as they attempt to reduce anxiety by keeping away from situations that trigger it. People with OCD tend to try to manage their OCD by avoiding situations that trigger anxiety.

What are some examples in which avoidance is a behavioural characteristics of OCD?

People who wash compulsively may avoid coing into contact with germs.

What is the problem with Avoidance being a behavioural chracteristics of OCD?

Avoidance can lead people to avoid very ordinary situations like emptying their rubbish bin and this can interfere with leading a regular life.

What can the emotional chracteristics of OCD be split into?

Anxiety and Distress
Accompanying Depression
Guilt and disgust

Explain anxiety as an emotional characteristics of OCD?

OCD is regarded as a particularly unpleasant emotional experience because for the powerful anxiety that companies both obsessions and compulsions. Obsessive thoughts are unpleasant and frightening, and the anxiety that goes with these can be overwhelming. The urge to repeat a behaviour creates anxiety

Explain accompanying depression as an emotional characteristic of OCD

OCD is often accompanied by depression, so anxiety can be accompanied by low mood and lack of enjoyment in activities. Compulsive behaviours tend to bring some relief from anxiety but this is temporary.

Explain guilt and disgust as an emotional characteristic of OCD

As well as anxiety and depression, OCD sometimes involves other negative emotions such as irrational guilt

What can the cognitive chracteristics of OCD be split into?

Obsessive thoughts
Cognitive coping strategies
Insight into excessive anxiety

Explain obsessive thoughts as a cognitive chracteristics of OCD?

These vary considerably from person to person but are always unpleasant.

Explain cognitive coping strategies as a cognitive characteristic of OCD?

Obsessions are the major cognitive aspect of OCD, but people also respond by adopting cognitive coping strategies to deal with the obsessions. This may help manage anxiety but can make the person appear abnormal to others and can distract them from everyday tasks

Explain insight into excessive anxiety as a cognitive chracteristics of OCD?

People with OCD are aware that their obsessions and compulsions are not rational. In fact this is necessary for a diagnosis of OCD. If someone really believed their obsessive thoughts were based on reality that would be a symptom of a quite different form of mental disorder. However in spite of this insight, people with OCD experience catastrophic thoughts about the worst case scenario that might result if their anxieties were justified. They also tend to remain hyper vigilant and maintain constant alertness and keep attention focused on potential hazards.

What is a behavioural approach ?

A way fo explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable and in terms of learning

What is the behavioural approach to explaining phobias?

Two-process model - classical conditioning/ operant conditioning

What si the two process model?

An explanation for the onset and persistence of disorders that create anxiety, such as phobias. The two process are classical conditioning for onset and operant conditioning for persistence

What is classical conditioning?

Learning by association. Occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together.

What is operant conditioning?

A form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences. Possible consequences of behaviour include positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement or punishment.

Who proposed the two process model? And when?

Orval Hobart Mowrer (1960)

What is the Little Albert experiment?

John Watson and Rosalie Rayner conducted an experiment on a baby by showing him a rat every time he heard a loud noise, which made the baby scared, and the baby slowly feared rats, and all furry animals.

Explain the Little Albert experiment

Albert showed no unusual anxiety at the start of the study. When show a white rat he tried to play with it. However, the experimenters then set out to give Albert a phobia. Whenever the rat was presented to Albert, they would make a loud freight ring noise by banging an Iron bar close to this ears.
The moise became an UCS (unconditioned stimulus) which creates an UCR (unconditioned response) of fear. When the rat (NS Neutral Stimulus) and the UCS are encountered close together in time the NS becomes associated with the UCS and both now produce the fear response - Albert displayed fear when he saw a rat (NS). The rat is now a learned or conditioned stimulus (CS) that produces a conditioned response (CR)
The conditioning then generalised to similar objects. Albert became afraid of other furry objects

How do phobia become long lasting?

Through operant conditioning

How is the two process model laid out?

Before conditioning
Unconditioned Stimulus
Unconditioned response

During conditioning
NS + Loud noise
New Stimulus response learned (NSR)

After conditioning
CS = CR
Then the fear become generalised

What does reinforcement lead to?

It tends to increase the frequency of a behaviour

What are the types of reinforcement?

positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement

What is positive reinforcement?

adding something into the situation that increases the tendency to repeat the preceding behavior

What is negative reinforcement?

Negative reinforcement occurs when something already present is removed (taken away) as a result of a behaviour and the behaviour that led to this removal will increase in the future because it created a favourable outcome.