⭐ Newer Sex, Drugs, & US Religion - Midterm

True or false? Religion is a universal concept throughout human history

False

True or false?: The secular and religious binary has existed throughout human history

False (The secular and religious binary is recent)

True or false?: Religion generally refers to the system, and faith generally refers to feelings

True

What did Brent Nongbri do?

Challenge the idea that religion existed in ancient history, and that it's universal

Who was the first to use the word "religion"?

The Roman Empire

What did religio mean and who used the word?

The Roman Empire used it to mean duties related to the state

What was the initial religion of the Roman Empire?

Polytheism

What religion did the Roman Empire convert to around the year 380?

Christianity

How did the use of the word religio change after the Roman Empire converted?

Religio was related to christianity

Who changed the word religion and how?

Philosophers of the enlightenment
There are many religions, term does not just apply to Christianity

The Enlightenment

In 1600s, Enlightenment occurs in Europe

• This was an intellectual and cultural movement that emerged in Europe

• People were taught to emphasize reason, individualism, and skepticism of tradition authority (e.g Christian values and traditions) (Many enlightenment scholars criticized Christianity because it didn't match with their enlightened logical thinking and values they were trying to implement within society

How was the word religion spread?

Colonialism
European Christians conquered much of the planet and taught "religion". They decided whether those they conquered had religion or not

Early origins of the word spirituality

Originated from the Roman Empire and derived from the Latin term "Spiritualitas"
In early Christianity, it is primarily referred to living a life guided by the Holy Spirit as opposed to material concerns

How and when did the word spirituality change in the 1800s?

Various groups expanded spirituality to include nature, individual experience, and intuition
No longer used just by Christians

How did the word spirituality change after WWII?

The word became associated with personal growth, well-being, and psychological development

1960s Counterculture

Period when the children of WWII adults (survivors) started a mass rebellion against the government and the implementation of Chrisitian values into the United States

1965 Immigration Act

• Encouraged non-European immigration

• Asian, Indian, African, and Islamic people came in large numbers

What did the youth movement think about the other cultures coming in as a result of immigration

They identified with them
They thought that Americans had it wrong, and non-Europeans had it right
They romanticized other cultures and had an idealized understanding of the rest of the world (since they criticized the west).

What was happening with the word religion and spirituality during the counterculture / youth movement

US immigrants learned that they had religion
Youth movement didn't like the word religion since they associated it with Christianity; they started using the word spirituality instead

Summary/Main Points of the Religion and Spirituality Lecture

All modern definitions of religion and spirituality are historically new However you define these words reflects the values you associate with the words

Different groups have different definitions

• no right definition

• how do people use words to achieve their goals?

Origin of the word "drug"

French word "drogue" or like German word "droge"

• Referenced dry goods like herbs and spices

Entered the English language in the 1300s

• but included a medicinal component (spices may or may not be medicinal)

• nature/plants can be drugs

• herbs, spices, dyes, soaps, incense, pigments

Prior to the Scientific Revolution, humans relied on _______ for medicine. Many cultures rely on this for their medicine today.

plants

How does the term drug change in the 1500s-1600s?

Expansion of the term to include exotic spices, medicines, and poisons

While people are conquering the world, they encounter new drugs, poisons, etc.
- drugs can be dangerous now

How did the term drug change in the 1600s-1700s?

The term expanded to include substances like cannabis and opium

• No documented evidence of recreational use

• These substances were used medicinally

How did the term drug change in the 1800s?

Science expanded the word drugs to because it created new psychoactive substances

Opium

Naturally occurring (poppy plants)
Prior to the 1800's, Opium was sold over the counter as a medicine (not considered dangerous)

However in 1804, a new scientific form of Opium was synthesized into a new substance called morphine
- This was still used as medicine (e.g. painkillers)

Morphine

Scientist synthesized morphine
Used as: painkiller, anesthetic

Heroin

Synthesized by a chemist in 1874
On market as a medicinal drug

Coca Leaves

Not as strong as cocaine
Powder derived from coca leaves (abundant)
Trace use of leaves used for at least 5 thousand years
• used by indigenous
- keep awake, suppress apatite, gift from gods
Coca leaves drink (Peru)
Ritual with rose water, lots of sacred coca leaves, wine, and confetti (sacrifice coca leaves for mother earth)

Cocaine

Enter picture in 1960
Process to turn coca leaves into cocaine (powder form)
Coca leaves themself gave off a mild stimulant effect, while it's synthesized version cocaine gave a much more intense effect
Used as a stimulant - cocaine wine, coca cola

How did the category and definition of drugs change in the late 1800's?

Included recreational use of psychoactive substances (as well as medicinal)
--> awareness of possible recreational use of drugs

How was the ban on drugs advocated for and by whom?

Racism: Associating drugs with stereotyped behaviors against minorities
By Christians who wanted to use the government to enforce their values

1st drugs law that was inherently racist

Anti-Chinese and opium
Banned certain ways of using the drug like smoking, which was only done by asians, while keeping legal the drinking of the drug from a vial (mainly done by white people)

How was cocaine stereotyped?

Associated with violence, aggression, and pursuance of white women by black men

How was cannabis stereotyped?

Associated with anti-Mexican racism and rhetoric

Harrison Narcotics Act (1914)

The first US federal law against "drugs"
Regulated and taxes opium, morphine and cocaine
Goal was to eliminate recreational (non-medical) use
Had the unintended consequence of creating an underground market

Eighteenth Amendment Act (1919-1933)

Outlawed alcohol
Only churches were allowed to distribute and manufacture wine for communion
Alcohol was always considered a drug during and before this time since people drank it for medicinal purposes

Marijuana Tax Act

Effectively banned cannabis through heavy taxation and regulation
People needed a government permit to consume cannabis, but becomes illegal once they stop giving them out

Trend with US gov

Federal government gets involved with and regulates drugs

FBN (Federal Bureau of Narcatics)

The government creates the FBN to enforce drug prohibition laws and stop drug trafficking
Original version of DEA (Drug Enforcement Administration)

Harry J. Anslinger

First commissioner of FBN (1930-1962)
Advocated for a the broad prohibition of drug use
Was involved in the federal debate of how drug use should be treated amongst individuals (therapeutically or criminally?)
He related drug use with stereotyped minority behaviors

What is the government involved with in by the 1950s? What happens as this is happening?

By the 1950s, the government is involved in regulating drugs
New drugs are being introduced and a black market forms

Mescaline

Psychoactive compound in peyote cactus
Used by native americans
Used to cure alcoholism
Scientists synthesized mescalin. Pills are used by white people

LSD

Lysergic Acid Diethylamide
A chemist created 25 types of LSD and he experienced the first trip

Psilocybin Mushrooma

Shrooms
Magic mushroom (LIFE magazine)

Coining of the term "psychedelic drugs"

Experience of these drugs was similar

Huxley proposed phanerothyme (didn’t stick)

Humphry Osmond coine psychadelic (mind-manefesting)

How were psychedelics introduced

In the 1950s, the US is introduced to spychedelics
These drugs are researched for mental health

What happens to psychadelics in the 1960s?

They became associated with the counterculture and the youth movement started taking these substances (they were against the government)

Controlled Substances Act

1970
A federal US law that regulates the manufacture, distribution, and classification of drugs
--> War on drugs
Racism was behind in

Schedule System

5 Classes Regulates and classifies drugs based on their potential for abuse, medical use, and safety 1 = most tightly regulated, "worst", cannabis is on this level 5 = most valuable for society

True or False: The term cult has a negative association

True

True or False: Religion has a more positive connotation than cult

True

Rodney Stark and William Bainbridge

Main sociologists on religion in the 70s and 80s
Started debate on the use of terminology like "cult" and "sect"

Anti-Cult Movement

Peaked in 1970s and 1980s, when new religions were rising
Parents were trying to figure out why children were rejecting christian values and societal norms, was explained by brainwashing
Parents would hire abductors to kidnap their children to "decultify" them from the "brainwashing" of these cults

Use of term cult by US vs by scholars

US used it to mean something bad
Scholars believed the word 'cult' has a theoretical and academic value to it

What did scholars want to do with words like cult and sec

They wanted to define words like cult and sect so that there was an agreed upon vocabulary (to create a theory of New Religious Movements)

Stark and Bainbridge's Definition of religion

Definition has to be broad enough but not too broad Includes notion of ultimate concern
Adderss the existence of the supernatural
Explanations about how and why rewards are obtained and how and why costs are incurred
Compensators concerning rewards

"A religion is a system of general compensators based on supernatural assumptions"

Didn't settle the debate
- eg stuff like nationalism and pyramid schemes fit the definition

Max Weber's approach to defining cults and sects

Ideal types: Analytical constructs that serve as a tool for understanding and comparing social phenomena

Different types of religion are disntinct enough to be labeled and classified

Church (criteria):

• Institutional (stable)

• Democratic (teaches that redemption/salvation is available to everyone as long as they the church's rules)

• hierarchy (authority structure)

Sect (criteria)

• Claims exclusive access to goal (compensator)/ doesn't offer universal salvation

• Requires proper initiation

Considered wrong, but was right to classify (and contrubuted to the research of NRMs)

Stark and Bainbridge talk abt him

Benton Johnson

Sociologist who modified Weber's definitions

• A church is in harmony with the larger environment/accepts social environment in which it exists

• A sect rejects the social environment in which it exists

Religious institution = Church Religious movement = sect

What do Stark and Bainbridge like about Benton Johnson's definition and what do they modify?

The range of tension between religious movements and society

Say that there are degrees of tension

Church Religious Movements:

• Sect (Low tension)

• Cult (High tension)

When did the word cult get a negative baggage

60s

3 Types of Cults (Stark and Bainbridge)

(All Cults Move)

Audience cults: No formal organization, influencers, don't require membership

Client cult: Involves commercial exchange, low commitment, followers pay for something, can be a part of multiple

Cult Movement: Has a collective desire to make change, requires high commitment

Did Stark and Bainbridge settle the debate?

No:
Failed to reach mainstream society eg in use of word cult
Definitions failed in academic society

A Takeaway Church/Cult/Sect Trichotomy

No intellectual value for word cult - it dismisses groups

Brainwashing

The process of pressuring someone into adopting radically different beliefs by using forcible means

Anti-Cult Movement and Brainwashing

1960s - Development of new religious movements
80s was the height of the anti cult movement
Parents didn't understand and looked for a reason kids were leaving and joining these groups
- the explanation they found was brainwashing

Cold War (1947-1991)

The ideological, and sometimes political, battle between atheist communist Soviet Union and christian capitalist United States
Before this, United States and Russia were allies in World War II (without a common enemy, they became enemies)

US wanted to stop the spread of communism

Korean War (1950-1978)

The United States got involved to stop the spread of communism (North Korea was communist and South Korea was not communist)

Some American soldiers were captured by the Chinese and when they returned, they were sympathetic to the communist parties
- Brainwashing was used to explain this

Edward Hunter (1902-1978)

CIA operative who impersonated as a journalist

He wrote an article saying the Chinese government brainwashed their own people and americans to become communist --> awareness

Novel: "Brainwashing in Red China"

• Suggested only way people become communist is that they're forced against their will

• film "The Manchurian Candidate --> brainwashing is a household term

MK-ULTRA (1953-1973)

A convert CIA project to develop mind control techniques
Failed because they couldn't successfully brainwash people against their own will

William Sargent

Associated brainwashing with religion

• Revisited history and concluded that brainwashing may have been done in ancient times

• Looked at methodism

Margaret Singer

Uses term brainwashing to explain how cults get people to join them (Americans buy this)

Eileen Barker

Sociologist that tested whether cults were brainwashing
- looked at unification church (Moonies)

Sun Myung Moon

North Korean founder of the Unification Church
"The Divine Principle" - new teaching (in addition to new and old testament)
Moon claimed he was the resurrected form of Jesus Christ (Claimed that the past Jesus wasn't complete because Jesus never had sex)

Moonies - what did being one entail?

mass, arranged weddings
people had to devote their wealth and life to the church

Moon comes to US

explodes in short time frame
controversial
becomes wealthy
everyone thinks he's brainwashing
convicted for tax fraud

Eileen's findings (The Making of a Moonie)

Very little joined of those interested, and most drop out
Brainwashing doesn't explain joining.
Joiners were young, middle class, educated, and associated with christianity

What did Margeret Singer Claim?

The moonies are so good at brainwashing that they brainwashed Eileen Barker

Michel Foucalt (1926-1984)

One of the most influential thinkers in the last 100 years
Historian of ideas (looks at how term change over time, and who creates and benefits from it)

Foucalt's novel "Madness and Civilization"

Looked at history and found what counts as madness and insanity as well as how it changed over time

The dominant story of sex and the victorian era

Prior to the Victorian Era (c. 1800s), sex was more open and less repressed
- bc no separate bedrooms

During the Victorian Era, sex became repressed and confined to the bedroom

Foucalt context

Gay man in San Francisco
His audience was the 1960s counterculture

Foucalt's Argument

Repression doesn't accurately describe the dynamics regarding sex in the Victorian Era

He also said the Victorian era saw an explosion of conversations about sex
- As the act of sex became more private, talking about it made it more common

He concluded that in the 1800's, it can be inferred that doctors and psychologists invent the idea that excessive masturbation can be deemed insanity

Foucalt's Conclusions

There are always evolving limits/restrictions on sex and sexuality

Social and clinical issues matter

• clinically: are they saying it's ok or it's a problem

The concepts of "repression" and "liberation" are legitimizing concepts

• eg I'm right and you're wrong

When is the Victorian era

The 1800s

What era is Foucault?

1900s

Who is Foucalt responding to?

His generation/ 1960s counterculture

US Constitution and religion (1789)

Says that to be a member of the US gov, there won't be a religious test (eg allegiance to a religion/christianity)

Religious establishment

When a state forces or encourages a specific religion

Bill of Rights (1791)

First 10 amendments to the constitution
1st Amendment: congress make can no law in respect to establishment of religion or prohibit free exercise of religion

Establishment clause- government can't declare US people as a religious country
- Despite this, government members are mostly Christian and incorporates Christianity into work

True or False: The constitution and first amendment leaves religion to state rights

True

How did Christians react to US gov not claiming a religion?

It scared them. They thought Christianity might disappear if the government doesn't support it This caused people to become more active in Christianity

• This is where diversity of Christianity came from, the spread and different understandings of Christianity

• Utopian communities began to develop and stay in states in which their lifestyle is best suited

Utopia

A place or state of things in which everything is perfect

Shakers

Began in 1747 England
Originally part of Quakers (democratic; not have minister, people sit in circles until God inspires them to speak; become open to women teaching services; had women authority figures)
Shaking Quakers
Negatively referred to as shakers
Break away as new church and embrace shaker

Ann Lee (1736-1784)

Leading quaker who helped make shakers
feeling god makes her shake

Background on Ann Lee

Didn't want to marry a man but was forced to and to have sex. Her kids died
She leaves her spouse and quakers and starts to have visions from God (and teaches from them)
Says we can live perfect lives with God via Holy Spirit in a utopian society

Ann Lee Teachings

The fruit in Adam and Eve story is a metaphor for sex
Focus on celibacy
Bisexuality of God (neither male nor female. Simultaneously both and neither)
God came to Earth as a man (Jesus) and had to come as a woman (Ann Lee) to create balance and utopia

Where do the Shakers go and what do they do?

They go to New York (1700s)
Build ~20 shaker villages
Peaked at 20k members
Men and women stayed separately until church service
Lived by making and sellings things (food [applesauce], clothes, etc) --> financial success
Can't procreate. They adopted but kids left around puberty
High turnover rates
They were one of the most successful utopian societies. Only 2 remain now

Forming of Oneida

American born (Oneida, NY) 4 communes, peaked at 306 members Lived in mansion Good at making things

• Women are in charge of the house, men are in charge of crafts they sell (they also employed outsiders)

John Humphrey Noyes

Created Oneida in 1848
Preacher that believed Jesus already came, we just missed it. Therefore, we have been able to live in a utopian society with God