Exam 1- Mader 1-7, 12, 15, 25

bio of life molecules of cells cell structure & function membrane structure metabolism, energy, & enzymes cellular resipiration DNA structure & gene expression cell division circulatory system respiratory system

list the 6 characteristics of life

1. organized

2. requires materials & energy

3. ability to reproduce & develop

4. responds to its environment

5. maintains internal environment

6. capacity to adapt to its environment

7. (unofficial) made of cells

describe the scientific method

observation, hypothesis, prediction, experiment, conclusion. repeat as needed.

describe the levels of biological organization

atoms/molecules, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, organisms, species, populations, communities, ecosystems, biospheres

Define Hypothesis

It is a statement that—after synthesizing facts, data, and observation—makes a claim about how the observable world works. 

define Theory

the closest science can come to saying “this thing is true”. Also called a law or principle.

define Experimental (independent) variable

the thing that stays the same/is independent in the sense that it does not react b/c of anything else; the thing that is being manipulated.  

define Responding (dependent) variable–

the thing that interacts with the independent variable; what is being tracked/observed/measured.

define Control variables

variables that are not exposed to the experiment procedure in order to create a baseline for the how exactly the experiment affects the experimentee

types of bonding

covalent (polar & non-polar), ionic, & hydrogen

covalent bonding

polar bonding— tug-of-war bond, where an electron(s) is being shared between two atoms

non-polar bonding— holding hands bond, where an electron(s) is being shared between two atoms

ionic bonding

when electrons are transferred from one atom to another

hydrogen bonding

a bond between a partially positive hydrogen atom and a partially negative nitrogen or oxygen atom; occurs between molecules & within larger molecules

list the properties of water

high heat capacity

high heat of vaporization

a good solvent

cohesive & adhesive

less dense when frozen

elements of living things

carbon

oxygen

nitrogen

hydrogen

phosphorus

sulfur

dehydration reaction

synthesis reaction; building a polymer

hydrolysis reaction

degradation; breaking down a polymer

what are carbohydrates?

functional group related to energy, structure, & recognition. monosaccharides & polysaccharides are carbs

what are lipids?

functional group related to structure, enzymes, & energy storage. fats (from animals) & oils (from plants) are lipids. also phospholipids & steroids.

what are proteins/amino acids?

functional group related to structure, catalyzing reactions, & transportation. there are 20 amino acids. enzymes, peptides, & polypeptides are proteins.

what are nucleic acids?

functional groups associated with genetic information & energy. DNA, RNA, & ATP are nucleic acids.

define DNA

deoxyribonucleic acid. the genetic information. recipe for humans.

define RNA

ribonucleic acid. the instructions for building proteins.

what is ATP?

energy.

define element

a substance that cannot be broken down into a smaller substance

define atom

the smallest part of an element, made up of protons (positively charged), electrons (negatively charged), and neutrons (no charge)

define isotope

atoms of the same element with differing numbers of neutrons

define atomic mass vs. atomic number

atomic mass is the average number of isotopes.

atomic number is the number of protons in the atom’s nucleus

define monomer

simple organic molecule that exists individually

define polymer

large organic molecules that are made by combining monomers

define electronegativity

an atom’s affinity for electrons (more likely to be negatively charged)

list differences between prokaryotic & eukaryotic cells

capsules vs. none

nucleoid vs. nucleus

no organelles vs. yes organelles

prokaryotes small vs. eukaryotes big

prokaryotes are bacteria & archaea vs. eukaryotes are eukarya

list similarities between prokaryotic & eukaryotic cells

plasma membrane

cell walls (sometimes)

ribosomes

flagella

what does a nucleus do?

stores genetic information

what do ribosomes do?

protein synthesis

what does endoplasmic reticulum do?

rough ER = protein synthesis

smooth ER = phospholipid synthesis

what does a golgi apparatus do?

packages, sorts, & distributes materials

what do vesicles do?

control endocytosis, secretion, & digestion

what is the cell membrane?

a semipermeable barrier to protect the cell

what is the cytoskeleton?

cellular structure & movement

what are vacuoles?

membrane-bound sacs that store substances

what do peroxisomes do?

they hold the site of breakdowns & detoxifications

what do lysosomes do?

break down & digest unneeded materials, like used-up organelles & bacteria

what do mitochondria do?

break down glucose to produce ATP (aka cellular respiration) (aka they are the powerhouse of the cell)

what do chloroplasts do?

photosynthesis. they synthesize glucose & make ATP

what is the endosymbiotic theory?

that eukaryotic cells evolved from prokaryotic cells. evidences include the similarities between prokaryotes & eukaryotes

what are cells?

the basic unit of life; has DNA, membrane, organelles, & enzymes

what is the cell membrane made of?

a semipermeable lipid bilayer with hydrophilic lipids on the outside & hydrophobic lipids on the inside. regulates entrance & exit of molecules.

what CAN get through the cell membrane?

small, non-charged molecules,

what CAN’T get through the cell membrane?

proteins, macromolecules, polar molecules (like sugar), water

what kinds of transportation happens through the cell membrane?

passive & active transport; also via diffusion of oxygen in lungs

define active transport

needs energy; endo- & exocytosis

explain endocytosis

pinching off membrane to make pore that engulfs the matter

define exocytosis

using ATP to make a fusion pore

what does the fluid-mosaic model state?

that the cell membrane is not static or solid; it is constantly in motion

what kinds of proteins help with transportation in/around cell?

channel proteins, carrier proteins, cell recognition proteins, receptor proteins, enzymatic proteins

what do channel proteins do?

create a passage through the membrane

what do carrier proteins do?

they interact with molecules & bind to them

what do cell recognition proteins do?

recognize molecules & work with compatability

what do receptor proteins do?

bind to specific molecules & sees them as signals from blood to start certain processes

what do enzymatic proteins do?

catalyze reactions

define passive transport

no energy needed; ex.: movement of water from high concentration to low concentration

describe tonicity’s effect on the cell

hypotonic solutions (too much solute) dehydrate & shrivel vacuoles. hypertonic solutions (too much water) overhydrate & expand cells, causing them to burst.

define isotonic solution

when the water and solute concentration is equal inside & outside

define hypotonic solution

when there is too much solute going in

define hypertonic solution

when there is too much water going in

explain energy flow

energy comes from the sun to the plants, which photosynthesize & create energy, which feeds animals who eat the plants; their movements and cellular respiration create energy that flows back into the environment as heat & carbon dioxide.

what is the 1st law of thermodynamics?

energy conservation: energy cannot be created or destroyed, it can only change form

what is the 2nd law of thermodynamics?

entropy: energy cannot change form without losing some form of usable energy

define entropy

movement toward disorder. (more entropy = less potential energy = more stable condition)

what are the 4 types of energy? give an example of each.

potential energy, stored energy; solar energy, the sun; chemical energy, eating/digestion; mechanical energy, movement.

define exergonic reaction

a spontaneous reaction that does not need energy to start it but gives off energy (exer = energy out)

define endergonic reaction

a non-spontaneous reaction that needs energy input to happen

what is ATP and what does it do?

ATP is a nucleic acid. it is the energy to do things, it transports things, it moves things (muscles)

what do enzymes do?

enzymes control the rate of reactions but are not themselves used up in the reaction. they are catalysts.

define degradation

breaking down compounds

define synthesis

building compounds

what is a substrate in reference to enzymes?

another way to say “products.” molecules produced & released by enzymes

what is the active site in reference to enzymes?

where the substrate/products fit into the enzyme (lock & key)

how do you recognize a reaction that has been oxidized?

OIL = oxidization is loss. when a molecule loses a hydrogen

how do you recognize a reaction that has been reduced?

RIG = reduction is gain. when a molecule gains a hydrogen

define metabolism

the breaking down and building up of polymers; the entirety of all chemical reactions in a cell; anabolism + catabolism

define anabolism

building up polymers

define catabolism

breaking down polymers

what is the full name for ATP?

adenine triphosphate

what is oxidization?

when a molecule loses a hydrogen/electron

what is reduction?

when a molecule gains a hydrogen/electron

what are the 4 phases of cellular respiration?

glycolysis, prep reaction, citric acid cycle, electron transport chain

what is the goal of glycolysis?

to take in glucose & make pyruvate

what is the goal of the prep reaction?

to get pyruvate into a form that’s able to travel through the mitochondrial membrane

what is the goal of the citric acid cycle?

to spend carbons in acetyl coA to generate reduced electron carriers

what is the goal of the electron transport chain?

to generate ATP

what is chemiosmosis?

using the “dam” energy of electron flow to synthesize ATP

what is fermentation and when do cells do it?

when cells reduce pyruvate into lactate in order to regenerate NAD and keep glycolysis running, under low-O2 conditions

why does fermentation work?

because it replenishes the NAD supply that glycolysis needs to work & keeps the glucose flow

what does fermentation produce?

lactate in animals and alcohol in plants

what molecules form the backbone of DNA?

phosphate and sugar

what are the 4 DNA bases?

adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine

explain the central dogma

DNA is transcripted to RNA, which is then translated into proteins

what does semiconservative mean?

conserves the original DNA sequence: 1 parent cell → 2 identical daughter cells

what do ribosomes do?

synthesize proteins