problem of evil

What is the “Problem of Evil”?

The Problem of Evil is the challenge that the existence of evil and suffering in the world appears inconsistent with the belief in an all-powerful, all-knowing and all-good God. It is used as an argument against the existence of the God of classical theism. 

What is moral evil?

Moral evil is suffering caused by human choices, such as murder, war, cruelty or injustice. It raises questions about why an all-loving God allows people to harm others. 

What is natural evil?

Natural evil is suffering caused by natural events beyond human control, such as earthquakes, disease, floods and famine. It is especially challenging because it does not seem to result from human free will. 

What is the Inconsistent Triad?

The Inconsistent Triad states: (1) God is omnipotent, (2) God is omnibenevolent, (3) Evil exists. These three cannot all be true at the same time if evil genuinely exists. 

What did Epicurus say about evil?

Epicurus posed a paradox: If God is willing but not able to prevent evil, then he is not omnipotent; if he is able but not willing, then he is not omnibenevolent; if he is both able and willing, why does evil exist? 

What is the logical problem of evil?

The logical problem of evil argues that the existence of any evil is logically incompatible with an omnipotent and perfectly good God. If God could stop evil and would want to, then evil should not exist. 

What is the evidential problem of evil?

The evidential problem of evil says that, although God and evil could logically coexist, the amount, intensity and distribution of evil makes it unlikely that an all-powerful, all-knowing and all-loving God exists. 

Who was J. L. Mackie and what was his view?

J. L. Mackie argued that the problem of evil is logically inconsistent with the existence of the God of classical theism and that the Inconsistent Triad shows God cannot exist as described if evil exists. Critics say he underestimates the role of free will. 

What is Alvin Plantinga’s Free Will Defence?

Plantinga argued that God could allow evil because free will is necessary for genuine moral goodness. A world with free creatures who can choose bad things may be logically possible even for God. 

Strength of the Free Will Defence

It shows a logically possible reason why God allows moral evil: God cannot create free creatures who always freely choose good without undermining freedom itself. 

Weakness of the Free Will Defence

It does not explain natural evil like earthquakes, tsunamis and disease, which are not clearly caused by human free will. 

What is the Augustinian Theodicy?

Augustine taught that God created a perfect world but evil entered through human misuse of free will and the Fall. Moral evil results from sin; natural evil is connected to the corrupt state of creation after the Fall. 

Strength of the Augustinian Theodicy

It preserves God’s goodness and justice while explaining evil as the result of human freedom and moral responsibility. 

Weakness of the Augustinian Theodicy

It struggles with scientific explanations for evil and suffering, and it seems unjust to hold all humans responsible for original sin. 

What is the Irenaean (Soul-Making) Theodicy?

Irenaeus argued that suffering and evil are necessary for soul-making or moral development. God allows evil so humans can grow virtues like courage and compassion in response to difficulties. 

Strength of the Irenaean Theodicy

It gives a purpose to suffering by showing how challenges can lead to moral and spiritual growth. 

Weakness of the Irenaean Theodicy

It may justify intense and pointless suffering too readily and seems to make God responsible for creating an imperfect world to begin the “soul-making” process. 

What is Skeptical Theism?

Skeptical theism argues that humans do not have the capacity to judge God’s reasons for allowing evils — God may have morally sufficient reasons we cannot understand. 

Strength of Skeptical Theism

It explains why we shouldn’t expect to know God’s reasons for permitting suffering, preserving divine mystery and human epistemic limits. 

Weakness of Skeptical Theism

It risks making God’s reasons unknowable and can undermine confidence in understanding any moral reasoning from God. 

What is Process Theism’s response?

Process theologians argue that God is not omnipotent in the classical sense and instead influences the world creatively but cannot unilaterally prevent all evil. 

Other responses to the problem of evil

Some suggest God’s omniscience or omnipotence are limited, or that divine goodness is better understood in terms other than eliminating all suffering. 

Does the existence of evil challenge belief in God?

The Problem of Evil claims evil is incompatible with an all-powerful, all-knowing and all-loving God. If God can stop evil but doesn’t, is He good? If He wants to stop evil but can’t, is He powerful? Leads some to deny the God of classical theism.

What is the logical problem of evil? (Mackie)

Mackie argues that God and evil are logically incompatible. If God is omnipotent and omnibenevolent, evil should not exist. Since evil exists, God (as described by classical theism) cannot. Critics argue free will may resolve the contradiction.

What is the evidential problem of evil? (Rowe)

Rowe accepts God might logically coexist with evil, but the sheer amount and seeming pointlessness of suffering (e.g. animal pain, natural disasters) makes God’s existence highly unlikely. Suggests belief becomes irrational.

What is the Inconsistent Triad? (Hume)

Hume restates the classic paradox: God is omnipotent, God is omnibenevolent, evil exists — all three cannot be true at once. Theists must modify or reject at least one claim.

What is moral and natural evil?

Moral evil: caused by human choices (murder, war, injustice). Natural evil: caused by nature (disease, earthquakes, tsunamis). Natural evil is harder to justify because it is not caused by free will.

How does Augustine explain evil?

Augustine: God created a perfect world. Evil is not a substance but a privation (lack) of good caused by the misuse of free will (the Fall). Natural evil follows as punishment and disorder in creation.

Strengths of Augustine’s theodicy

Protects God’s goodness, explains evil as human fault, emphasises responsibility. Uses privation to avoid blaming God directly for evil.

Criticisms of Augustine (Schleiermacher + science)

Schleiermacher says a perfect creation could not “go wrong.” Modern science rejects Adam and Eve and inherited guilt. Appears unjust for all humans to suffer for one sin; suggests God created a world able to fail.

How does Irenaeus explain evil?

Irenaeus: humans are created immature “in the image of God,” and develop into His “likeness.” Evil is necessary for growth — we learn virtues through facing suffering. God allows difficulty to enable soul-making.

How does Hick develop Irenaeus?

Hick argues the world is a “vale of soul-making.” God keeps enough distance (epistemic distance) so faith is freely chosen. Suffering builds character, not pleasure. Ultimately God will save all.

Strengths of soul-making

Explains purpose of suffering, supports human development, fits evolutionary struggle. Allows God to be loving while still permitting challenges.

Weaknesses of soul-making (Dostoevsky + D.Z. Phillips)

Critic: some suffering is too extreme to justify. It makes people “means to an end.” D.Z. Phillips argues suffering is not morally acceptable “so that we may grow.” God appears morally questionable.

What is the Free Will Defence? (Plantinga)

Plantinga: Free will is a greater good. God cannot force people to freely choose good. Evil is a consequence of genuine freedom, not God’s design. Shows God and evil can logically coexist.

Strengths of Free Will Defence

Preserves moral responsibility, explains moral evil clearly, solves the logical contradiction. Shows God is not the direct cause of evil.

Weaknesses of Free Will Defence

Does not adequately explain natural evil. Suggests heaven has free will without evil — so why not create that world? Assumes freedom automatically justifies suffering.

How do some theists answer natural evil?

Some say natural evil results from human sin corrupting nature; others argue natural order is necessary for stable laws; soul-making uses natural challenges to build virtues. Critics say much still seems unnecessary.

What is skeptical theism?

Claims humans cannot understand God’s reasons. Our knowledge is limited, so the fact we can’t see a reason for suffering does not mean there isn’t one. Keeps divine mystery intact.

Criticisms of skeptical theism

Risks destroying moral reasoning: if we “don’t know God’s reasons,” anything could be justified. Makes God seem distant and morally ambiguous.

What does process theology say? (Whitehead, Griffin)

God is not omnipotent in the classical sense. God persuades creation but cannot control it. Evil exists because God cannot override natural processes. Preserves divine love but sacrifices almightiness.

Criticism of process theology

Many argue this is no longer the God of classical theism. If God cannot save or guarantee justice, why worship Him?

What does Dawkins say about evil and God?

Dawkins rejects God entirely. Suffering is a by-product of evolution and survival. The problem of evil is only an issue if you believe in God — remove God, remove the problem.

What does Swinburne say about evil?

Swinburne argues some suffering is necessary for humans to learn responsibility and to make meaningful moral choices. Without risk and danger, our actions lack seriousness or value.

What does William Rowe argue about pointless suffering?

Rowe’s famous deer example suggests there appears to be suffering with no benefit. If God is loving and powerful, pointless suffering shouldn’t exist — yet it does.

What does John Hick say about hell and suffering?

Hick rejects eternal hell — it would contradict a loving God. Eventually, every soul is saved. This softens the apparent injustice of earthly suffering.

Does the problem of evil prove God does not exist?

Atheists: yes — suffering strongly undermines belief. Theists: no — various theodicies show possible reasons. Many accept tension remains but argue faith is still rational.

How might evil lead some to deeper faith?

Some believers claim suffering encourages dependence on God, empathy, compassion, and hope in life after death. Critics respond this still leaves innocent pain unexplained.

What does Leibniz say: is this the best possible world?

Leibniz claims God created the best possible world overall — even if we don’t see it. Evil plays a role in a greater plan. Critics say this trivialises horrific suffering.

What is the pastoral problem of evil?

Beyond philosophy, suffering creates emotional and spiritual crisis. Religious responses focus on presence, community, prayer, and support — not only abstract argument.