Criminology quiz 3

What does the tradition approach about arrests think?

Breaking the law → arrest → reduces crime (through deterrence, rehabilitation, and incapacitation)

What do labeling theorists think about arrests?

Labeling people as convicted felons by arresting them doesn't lead to less crime, instead it could increase crime and cause them to become life-persistant offenders

What is the self-fulfilling prophecy?

Being labeled as a criminal can push someone further into criminal behavior

What was happening during the start of the 1960s?

It started with optimism (trust in the government)

What was happening as the 1960s progressed?

Optimism began to fade (promises of the government were left unfulfilled)

What is the foundation for studying crime?

The social construction of crime

What do labeling theorists think?

• Behaviors are not inherently criminal or deviant, they become criminal when society labels Them as such

• Societal reactions construct the reality of crime, not the inherent nature/harmfulness of the act

Labeling theories are rooted in…

Symbolic interactionism

What is Symbolic interactionism?

A sociological framework that says our identity is not fixed and is shaped through interactions with others

How does labeling theory build on symbolic interactions?

By examining the impact of social labels on individuals

What does labeling theory suggest?

That once labeled, people may adopt a deviant identity that reinforces and sustains criminal behavior

What is the dramatization of evil?

Society shifts from seeing the behavior as bad to seeing the person as inherently bad

Who with up with the primary/secondary deviance theory?

Edwin Lemert

What was primary deviance according to Edwin Lemert‘s theory?

The initial act of rule - breaking that doesn't initially impact the individuals self identity that is caused by social and environmental factors

What was secondary deviance according to Edwin Lemert‘s theory?

When society reacts strongly to the primary deviant act, attaching a label to the individual (over time, the individual may internalize this label → more delinquency)

What do the primary and secondary deviance result from?

An accumulation of social interactions

Are the primary and secondary deviance a binary or a cumulative process?

Cumulative

What were the results of Devah Pager'S "the mark of a criminal record“?

• Applicants without a criminal record received a callback 34% of the time, but applicants with one only got called back 17% of the time

• Black applicants without a criminal record receive fewer callbacks (14%) than white applicants with a criminal record (17%)

• Criminal record → negative credentials → social exclusion

What were the point of Devah Pager'S "the mark of a criminal record“ study?

• To prove how a criminal record impacts job opportunities

• The used an experimental audit study (set up nearly identical pairs of individuals aside from race and criminal record)

What did John braithwaite focus on in his “crime, shame and reintegration” theory?

• Focused on youths

• Stigmatizing shaming

• Reintegrative shaming

What was “Stigmatizing shaming“ in John braithwaite “crime, shame and reintegration” theory?

• Labeling individuals as "bad“ or “criminal“ without providing a path back to societal acceptance

• Permanently casting out individuals (social exclusion), leading to their deeper involvement in criminal subcultures

• Societies with more crime use this

What was “reintegrative shaming“ in John braithwaite “crime, shame and reintegration” theory?

• Criticizes the behavior, not the person

• After an offender acknowledges their wrongdoings, they are offered forgiveness and encouraged to rejoin society

• This reduces the likelihood of future crime

• Societies with this have less crime

What did John braithwaite Connect his theory of “crime, shame and reintegration” to?

Social disorganization by Shaw and McKay

Social bonds by hirschi

What were the macro-level implications of stigmatizing shaming?

Socially disorganized societies →urbanization/mobility/weakened family and community ties → shaming because of little communal support for reintegration → labeling and isolation → forming criminal subcultures

What were the micro-level implications of stigmatizing shaming?

Weak social bonds → alienation → joining criminal groups to reinforce deviant behavior

What is restorative justice?

• Reintegrative shaming is related this

• Both the victim and the offender participate

• Allows offenders to express remorse and be forgiven

• It has promising results in reducing recidivism as it encourages reintegration

What are the policy implications of John braithwaite’s “crime, shame and reintegration” study (the four D's)?

1. Decriminalization

2. Diversion

3. Due process

4. Deinstutionalization

What is the Decriminalization policy implication of John braithwaite’s “crime, shame and reintegration” study (the four D's)?

• It has been partially adopted

• It involves removing "victimless crimes“ from the criminal code reduces stigmatization and system involvement

What is the diversion policy implication of John braithwaite’s “crime, shame and reintegration” study (the four D's)?

It involves redirecting offenders from the traditional justice system to alternative programs (e.g. Rehab)

What is the due process policy implication of John braithwaite’s “crime, shame and reintegration” study (the four D's)?

It involves strengthening legal protections for offenders, such as the right to an attorney and protection from illegal searches

What is the deinstitutionalization policy implication of John braithwaite’s “crime, shame and reintegration” study (the four D's)?

It involves reducing prison populations by keeping more offenders in community - based correction programs

What are the policy implications of John braithwaite’s “crime, shame and reintegration” study (the two R's)?

• Restorative justice

• Reentry programs

• They aim to reduce stigma and reintegrate offenders

What was the restorative justice policy implication of John braithwaite’s “crime, shame and reintegration” study (the two R's)?

• It focuses on restoring both the victim and the offender to their communities (happens in professional settings. Focuses on repeating/making amends and next steps

What was the reentry programs policy implication of John braithwaite’s “crime, shame and reintegration” study (the two R's)?

• They began in prison and extend post-release to help with immediate and long-term reintegration needs, including employment and housing

What are the criticisms/ limitations of John braithwaite’s “crime, shame and reintegration” study?

• It focuses too much on the social interaction and not personal factors

• it's too deterministic

• The threat of punishment and the associated stigma → no crime, not the fear of being labeled

What factors influence whether an individual internalizes or resists a negative label?

• Who the label comes from

• Support systems

• Who the label is being attached to

What is feminism?

It is NOT a monolithic movement because it comprises various schools of thought and approaches (social, political, philisophical)

What does feminism fight for?

Gender equality

What is Gender equality?

The belief in the equal value and rights of all genders

What is Gender equality focused on achieving?

Equal social, political, legal and economic rights for women

What were the two main historical times of feminism?

• First wave of feminism (19Th century to 20th century)

• Second wave of feminism (1960s to 1980s)

What did the First wave of feminism (19Th century to 20th century) lay the groundwork for?

Recognizing general inequalities

What is the chivalry hypothesis?

That women receive more lenient punishments when they commit crimes that align with their gender roles and harsher punishments when the crimes don't align (e.g. Stealing formula to feed baby= lenient, child abuse = harsher)

What did the 2019 “crime in the United States” show?

Women have more embezzlement and prostitution crimes than men

What are the four hypotheses for why women's crime rates are so low compared to men's?

• Gender socialization

• Victimization

• Strain theory

• Differential association

What is the “Gender socialization“ hypothesis for why women's crime rates are so low compared to men's?

• Women are more socialized to conform

• It involves Hagan's power-control theory

What is the “differential association“ hypothesis for why women's crime rates are so low compared to men's?

• Girls are taught that violence is less compatible with their gender role

• Heimer and De Coster did research on this

• Giordano and Rockwell did research on this

What are the two influential books of second wave feminism (aka the liberation/ emancipation themes)?

• Freda Adler'S sisters in crime

• Rita Simon's women and crime

What did Freda Adler'S influential book “sisters in crime“ during the of second wave feminism (aka the liberation/ emancipation themes) hypothesize?

As women gained more opportunities in the workplace/ public sphere, they became just as prone to crime as men (specifically violent crime)

What did Rita Simon's influential book “women and crime“ during the of second wave feminism (aka the liberation/ emancipation themes) hypothesize?

The increase in female crime (property and white collar) rates is because of increased participation in the workforce

What did the increase in women incarceration really mean?

• the definitions of crime were changing

• The war on drugs disproportionally affected women and minorities

What were the critiques of Adler and Simon’s feminism + crime theories?

• It didn't capture the full complexity of female offending

• It overlooked crucial social structures

What were the four early feminist perspectives?

• Liberal feminism

• Marxist feminism

• Radical feminism

• Socialist feminism

What do Marxist feminists do/think?

• They attribute crime and victimization to capitalism

• Class structures under capitalism put women in subservient roles, both at work and at home

What do radical feminists do/think?

• Attribute crime to the biological aggression of men

• Crime is an instrument men use to keep women in fear and submission

What do socialist feminists do/think?

• Combines insight from Marxist and radical feminism

• Men have more opportunities (eg higher positions in society) to commit crime and gain from it

What are the limitations of the early feminism perspectives?

They didn't look at race, class, situational factors, and age,

What perspective was added to the early feminist perspectives because of their limitations?

The contemporary feminist perspective which had a greater emphasis on gender, race, class, and age

What are the 5 types of women that commit comes according to Kathleen dally?

• Harmed / harming women

• Battered women

• Street women

• Drug-connected women

• Other women

Why do battered women commit crimes according to Kathleen Daly?

They endured prolonged abuse and commit crimes against abusive partners

Why do harmed/harming women commit crimes according to Kathleen Daly?

They come from a background of family instability, where parents might have been incarcerated or drug addicts

Why do street women commit crimes according to Kathleen Daly?

They fled abusive homes leading to homelessness and survival crimes

Why do drug-connected women commit crimes according to Kathleen Daly?

They became involved in crime through relationships with male family members or friends in the drug trade

Why do other women commit crimes according to Kathleen Daly?

Because of financial needs even though they came from a generally stable background

What did Kathleen Dally call for in her theory of why 5 different types of women commit crimes?

Seeing women as victims instead of as offenders

What is another name for white-collar crime?

Non-violent crime

Who coined/came up with the theory of white-collar crime?

Edwin Sutherland

How did Edwin Sutherland define white-collar crime?

An act committed by a person of respectability and high social status in the course of his occupation

What assumption of crime did Edwin Sutherland want to Get rid of?

The assumption that crime is mainly a problem among the poor/ marginalized

What did Edwin Sutherland want criminal law to focus on?

On the affluent, mainstream and powerful instead on the poor/powerless

What did Edwin Sutherland find in his study of 70 large U.S. Corporations?

• 60% were convicted in civil/administrative/regulatory agencies rather than criminal courts

• White-collar crime is costlier then street crime

• Every corporation had broken at least one law (often multiple times)

What did Edwin Sutherland think about using civil/administrative/regulatory agencies rather than criminal courts to prosecute white-collar crimes?

This shielded the crimes of powerful corporations from public criticism

How did Clinard and Yeager distinguish between corporate crimes and white collar crimes?

Organizational/Corporate crime= benefit the corporation

Classic/Occupational/white-collar crimes = against the corporation and benefits the individual

What is embezzlement?

The theft of funds or property by an employee who has reached a position of financial trust

What is the Robin Hood effect according to Smigel and Ross in crimes against bureaucracy?

Employees often perceive theft from large corporations as victimless/ justified

Despite an estimated of ___% American households being impacted by white-collar crime, ___% of victims do not fate a formed complaint.

24;88

What are the three impacts of white-collar crime?

1. its financial cost exceeds that of street crime

2. It is more likely to be victimized

3. Being a victim of white-collar crime is just as devastating as street crime to one's quality of life

What are corporations considered under the law?

Legal persons

What are characteristics of corporate crime according to Croall?

• Takes place in private

• Offenders are legitimately present at the scene

• Involving some insider knowledge

• No immediate physical threat and victim isn't immediately identifiable

• Ambiguous legal and criminal status

• Determining responsibility may be extremely problematic

What happened in the Ford Pinto case?

Pinto cars were manufactured with a design flaw that caused cars to be set on fire

What is the organizational explanation for corporate crimes?

• Corporations provide the means, setting, rational, and opportunity for corporate crimes

• The diffusion of responsibility of responsibility give anonymity and makes it harder to place blame

What was the Bhopal gas disaster?

A preventable gas leak that killed 30,000 people and created generational mutations to over 100,000 people

Why did Sykes and Matza develop their techniques of neutralization theory?

• The develop this in disagreance with Olin and Cohlin'S typology of gang theory

• They thought youth have the same societal values, but use neutralization techniques to justify their criminal acts and lessen their guilt

What are the four neutralization techniques Sykes and Matza developed their theory?

• Denial of responsibility (I was pressured into it)

• Denial of injury

• Denial of the victim (they had it coming)

• Condemnation of the condemners (everyone else does it do)

• Appeal to higher loyalties (I did it for my friends)