psych unit 2

cognitive neuroscience

The study of brain activity is linked with the mental processes of perception, thinking, memory, and language

selective attention

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

inattentional blindness

failing to see visual objects when our attention is directed elsewhere.

change blindness

failing to notice changes in the environment; a form of inattentional blindness

dual processing

the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks

parallel processing

Processing many aspects of a
problem simultaneously; generally
used to process well-learned
information or to solve easy
problems., Enables the mind to take care
of routine business

sequential processing

Processing one aspect of a problem at
a time; generally used to process new
information to solve difficult
problems., It is best for solving new
problems

circadian rhythm

refers to a pattern of biological functioning that occurs on a roughly 24‑hour cycle.

NREM 1

rregular (marks transition out of
alpha state), Fleeting images, fantastic images (hallucinations);
hypnagogic sensations

NREM 2

Sleep spindles: rapid, rhythmic brain
activity, Composes half of the entire time asleep

NREM 3

Delta, Sound sleep; important for restoring energy and
producing growth hormone; minimal awareness;
children may wet bed; the stage where night terrors and
sleepwalking occur

REM

Rapid and irregular, Rapid eye movement; brain mimics waking activity; all
muscles are paralyzed; heart rate rises, have vivid
dreams; genital arousal.

Insomnia

Ongoing difficulty falling or staying asleep, Chronic tiredness. Reliance on sleeping pills and
alcohol, which reduce REM sleep and lead to tolerance

Narcolepsy

Sudden attacks of overwhelming sleepiness, Risk of falling asleep at a dangerous moment.
Narcolepsy attacks usually last less than 5 minutes, but
they can happen at the worst and most emotional times

Sleep apnea

Stopping breathing repeatedly while
sleeping, Fatigue and depression as a result of slow-wave sleep
deprivation. Association with obesity (especially among
men).

Sleepwalking/sleep talking

Doing normal waking activities while
sleeping, Few serious concerns. Rarely remember events in the
morning.

Night terrors

Appearing terrified, talking nonsense,
sitting up, or walking around during
NREM-3 sleep; different from nightmares, Doubling of a child’s heart and breathing rates during
the attack

psychoactive drugs

Chemical substances that alter perceptions and moods

substance abuse disorder

characterized by continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or
physical risk.

tolerance

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug requires the user to take larger and larger doses before
experiencing its effect

withdrawl

The discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing an addictive drug or behavior

alcohol

Depressant, Initial high followed by
relaxation and inhibition, Depression, memory loss, organ
damage, impaired reactions; reckless
behavior, less inhibitions

heroin

Depressant, Rush of euphoria, relief from
pain, Depressed physiology, agonizing
withdrawal

caffeine

Stimulant, Increased alertness and
wakefulness, Anxiety, restlessness, and insomnia in
high doses; uncomfortable withdrawal

nicotine

Stimulant, Arousal and relaxation, sense
of wellbeing, Heart disease, cancer

Cocaine

Stimulant ,Rush of euphoria, confidence,
energy, Irritability, insomnia, hypertension,
and seizures

Meth

Stimulant, Euphoria, alertness, energy, Irritability, insomnia, hypertension, seizures

Ecstacy (MDMA)

Stimulant; mild
hallucinogen, Emotional elevation
disinhibition, Dehydration, overheating, depressed
mood, impaired cognitive and immune
functioning

LSD

Hallucinogen Visual “trip” Risk of panic

Marijuana

Mild hallucinogen, Enhanced sensation, relief from
pain, distortion of time,
relaxation, Impaired learning and memory,
increased risk of psychological
disorders

depressants

slow down body function and reduce neural activity (alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates)

stimulants

excite neural activity and speed up body functions (cocaine, caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, meth, and ecstasy)

hallucinogens

distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input (LSD, psychedelic drugs)

What occurs after repeated use of opiates?

The brain slows the natural production of endorphins and develops a tolerance to the drug.

What is the biological basis of addiction

The brain’s dopamine reward system

Describe the Harm Reduction Model for substance use

The Harm Reduction Model aims to reduce the psychological and physical harm associated with drug use by challenging myths
and education. Example: Providing clean needle exchange programs in order to decrease the risk of HIV among those who inject
drugs.

James-Lange

emotions arise from our awareness of our specific bodily responses to emotion-arousing stimuli

Cannon-Bard

emotion-arousing stimuli trigger our bodily responses and simultaneous subjective experience (fight or flight response)

Schachter-Singer

our experience of emotion depends on two factors; general arousal and a conscious cognitive label

Zajonc; LeDoux

some embodied responses happen instantly, without conscious appraisal

Lazarus

cognitive appraisal (“is it dangerous or not”)-sometimes without our awareness- define emotion

How is our DNA affected by stress?

our chromosomes deteriorate (shorten) when we experience persistent stress over a long period.

Facial Feedback Effect

the tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness

Behavioral Feedback Effect

the tendency of behavior to influence our own and others thoughts, feelings, and actions

feel-good, do-good phenomenon

peoples tendency to be helpful when in a good mood

postive psychology

The scientific study of human flourishing aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities thrive.

positive well-being

satisfaction with the past, happiness with the present, and optimism about the future.

positive character

focuses on exploring and enhancing creativity, courage, compassion, integrity, self-control, leadership, wisdom, and spirituality

positive groups, communities, and cultures

seeks to foster a positive social ecology

adaption level phenomenon

happiness is relative to our own experience; our tendency to form judgments relative to a neutral level is defined by our prior experiences

relative deprivation

happiness is relative to others success; the perception that one is worse off relative to those to whom one compares oneself

What is the health outcome linked to Type A
personalit

coronary heart disease

What are the three main types of stressors?

1. catastrophes

2. significant life changes

3. daily hassles

What are three health outcomes associated with persistent stress?

1. heart disease

2. inflammation of body tissues

3. cancer

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

3 stages:

1. alarm

2. resistance

3. exhaustion

problem-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress directly- by changing the stressor or the wat we interact with that stressor

emotion-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to our stress reaction

aerobic exercise

sustained exercise that increases heart and lung fitness; also helps alleviate depression and anxiety

relaxation and meditation

relaxation procedures can also help alleviate headaches, hypertension, anxiety, and insomnia

faith communities

religously active people tend to live longer than those who are not religiously active

While monozygotic twins share % of genes, dizygotic twins (and biological siblings) share %.

100%; 50%

What is the difference between monozygotic and dizygotic twins?

While monozygotic twins share 100% of genes, dizygotic twins (and biological siblings) share 50%

Primary Sex Characteristics

Ovaries, Testes, External genitalia, Makes sexual reproduction possible

Secondary Sex Characteristics

Breasts, Hips, Male voice quality, Body hair, Nonreproductive sexual traits

While sex is _____ influenced, gender is ______ influenced.

sex is biologically influenced, gender is socially influenced

What does heritability tell us about individuals and groups

informs us of the proportion of variation among individuals in a group that can be attributed to genes

Individualist

Prioritizes the individual’s goals over group goals and defining one’s identity through personal attributes instead of
group identifications. Values: Individual achievement, personal control, be unique

Collectivist

Gives priority to the group’s goals over the individual and defines identity according to group identifications.
Values: Duty to others, social harmony, and humility

nature

eye color, genetic diseases, hair color, blood type

nuture

religion, education, attitudes, political beliefs

both nature and nuture

personality, height, weight

epigenetics

the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change. Epigenetic marks can
be created by experiences and are often organic methyl molecules that are attached to part of a DNA strand. Epigenetic marks can
influence the expression of any gene in the DNA segment. That means they can instruct cells to ignore or turn off certain genes
(or turn them on)

Do parents or peers have more influence on children/teenagers?

parents have a more significant influence on their children typically until the ages of 9-13; then, there is greater peer influence

Why do you think that women are more likely to develop depression and anxiety while men are more likely
to die by suicide at the same time?

Answers vary. Possibly because when men attempt suicide, they use more lethal methods (use of a gun/noose) compared to
women (overdose/use of knife)

sensation

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from out environment.

perception

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory info, enabling us to reconize meaningful objects and events

bottom-up processing

refers to the cognitive process in which information is processed starting from the sensory input and moving towards higher-level cognitive processes. It involves the analysis of individual elements or details and gradually building a complete understanding or perception. This approach is commonly used in perception, pattern recognition, and problem-solving tasks.

top-down processing

a cognitive process in which our perception and understanding of a stimulus is influenced by our pre-existing knowledge, expectations, and context. It involves using higher-level cognitive processes, such as reasoning and problem-solving, to interpret and make sense of incoming sensory information. This approach starts with the "big picture" or the overall concept and then uses this knowledge to guide the processing of specific details or components. It is often used in tasks such as reading comprehension, problem-solving, and decision-making.

receive

receive sensory info, often using specialized receptor cells

transform

transform stimulation into neural impulses

deliver

deliver the neural information to our brain

Transduction

Conversion of one form of energy into another

Psychophysics

the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such
as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them.

absolute threshold

the minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time.

difference threshold

the minimum difference needed between two stimuli required for detection 50% o the time (the just noticeable difference)

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposes one’s perception, memory, or response.

subliminal stimulation

stimulation below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness.

retina

multilayered tissue on the eyeball’s inner surface

pupil

a small adjustable opening

iris

a colored muscle that dilates or constricts in response to light intensity

cornea

bends light in order to provide focus

blind spot

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a spot with no receptor cells

fovea

central point of focus on the retina

optic nerve

the nerve that carries neural impulse from the eye to the brain

rods

can detect black, white, and grey; are sensitive to movement; best for twilight vision.

cones

can detect fine detail and color; function well in daylight and well-lit conditions

Trichromatic theory

theory that the retina has three different types of color receptors- one of the most sensitive to red, one to green, and one to blue- leading to the perception of any color

Opponent-process theory

theory that opposing retinal processes (red/green, yellow/blue, and white/black) enable color vision

Proximity

we group nearby figures together

Continuity

we perceive smooth continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones.