ap psych vocab

random sample

individuals are chosen randomly, all with the same probability

p-value < 0.05

results are statistically significant (unlikely due to chance).

p-value ≥ 0.05

he results are not statistically significant

reliability

consistency or repeatability of a measurement

validity

extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure. 

somatic nervous system

Part of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary movements.

Function: Sends signals from the brain to skeletal muscles and brings sensory info back to the brain.

sympathetic nervous system

nervous system activates the body's stress response, preparing it for immediate action. (fight or flight)

parasympathetic nervous system

system plays a crucial role in regulating bodily functions during rest, relaxation, and digestion, helping to maintain balance

Autonomic Nervous System

Part of the nervous system that controls involuntary functions like heart rate, digestion, and breathing.

Function: Keeps the body running automatically (e.g., beating heart, breathing, sweating).

Central Nervous System

Made up of the brain and spinal cord.

Function: Processes information and controls most body and mind functions.

peripheral nervous system

All nerves outside the brain and spinal cord.

Function: Carries messages between the CNS and the rest of the body (muscles, organs, senses)

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter involved in muscle movement, learning, and memory.

Effect: Activates muscles; helps with attention and memory. Low levels are linked to Alzheimer's disease.

Action Potential

A brief electrical impulse that travels along a neuron.

Effect: Sends signals down the neuron to communicate with other cells.

Addiction

A chronic condition where a person compulsively engages in a behavior or consumes a substance despite harmful consequences.

Effect: Alters brain function, leading to cravings and loss of control over the behavior or substance use.

Adrenaline

A hormone and neurotransmitter released by the adrenal glands during stress or danger.

Effect: Increases heart rate, blood flow, and energy, preparing the body for the "fight or flight" response.

agonist

A substance that mimics or enhances the effect of a neurotransmitter by binding to its receptor.

Effect: Activates the receptor, producing a response similar to the natural neurotransmitter.

all or nothing principle

The idea that a neuron either fires fully (produces an action potential) or does not fire at all.

Effect: Once the threshold is reached, the neuron fires at full strength; there's no partial firing.

antagonist

A substance that blocks or inhibits the effect of a neurotransmitter by binding to its receptor.

Effect: Prevents the receptor from being activated, reducing or blocking the natural neurotransmitter's effect.

cocaine

A powerful stimulant drug that increases levels of dopamine in the brain.

Effect: Enhances pleasure and energy but can lead to addiction, anxiety, and serious health issues like heart problems and brain damage.

depressant

A type of drug that slows down brain activity and the central nervous system.

Effect: Reduces anxiety, induces relaxation, and can impair motor skills and judgment (e.g., alcohol, benzodiazepines).

dopamine

A neurotransmitter involved in pleasure, motivation, and reward.

Effect: Plays a key role in mood regulation, movement, and reinforcing behaviors (often associated with feelings of enjoyment or satisfaction). Low levels are linked to conditions like Parkinson's disease and depression.

endorphins

Neurotransmitters that act as natural painkillers and mood boosters.

Effect: Relieve pain, reduce stress, and promote feelings of euphoria and well-being (often released during exercise, laughter, or positive experiences).

gaba

The brain’s main inhibitory neurotransmitter.

Effect: Calms nervous activity, reduces anxiety, and helps with sleep by slowing down brain signals.

ghrelin

A hormone that signals hunger to the brain.

Effect: Increases appetite and food intake by telling the brain it's time to eat. Often called the "hunger hormone."

glutamate

An amino acid that serves as the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system

Effect: metabolism and plays a role in various bodily functions, including learning, memory, and digestion.

hallucinogen

A class of drugs that alter perception, thoughts, and feelings.

Effect: Induces sensory distortions or hallucinations, often affecting vision, sound, and time (e.g., LSD, psilocybin).

heroin

A highly addictive opioid drug derived from morphine.

Effect: Produces intense feelings of euphoria, pain relief, and relaxation, but it also carries a high risk of addiction, overdose, and long-term health problems.

leptin

A hormone that helps regulate energy balance and appetite.

Effect: Signals the brain to reduce hunger and increase energy expenditure when fat stores are sufficient, helping to maintain body weight.

marijuana

A psychoactive drug derived from the Cannabis plant, often used for its euphoric and relaxing effects.

Effect: Contains THC, which alters perception, mood, and cognition. It can induce relaxation, but also impair memory, coordination, and judgment. Long-term use can lead to addiction and other health issues.

melatonin

A hormone that regulates sleep-wake cycles, signaling the body when it's time to sleep and wake up.

motor neurons

Nerve cells that transmit signals from the central nervous system (CNS) to muscles and glands.

Effect: Control voluntary and involuntary movements by stimulating muscles to contract or glands to secrete.

multiple sclerosis

A chronic disease where the immune system attacks the protective covering of nerve fibers (myelin) in the central nervous system.

Effect: Disrupts communication between the brain and body, causing symptoms like muscle weakness, vision problems, numbness, and coordination issues. It can vary in severity and progression.

Myasthenia Gravis

An autoimmune disorder where the immune system attacks the muscle receptors for acetylcholine.

Effect: Leads to muscle weakness, especially in areas like the eyes, face, and throat. It impairs voluntary muscle control, making activities like speaking, swallowing, and breathing difficult.

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter and hormone involved in the fight-or-flight response.

Effect: Increases heart rate, blood flow, and alertness, preparing the body for stress or danger. It also plays a role in mood regulation and arousal.

opioids

A class of drugs that include natural (e.g., morphine, codeine) and synthetic (e.g., oxycodone, fentanyl) substances.

Effect: Act on opioid receptors in the brain to relieve pain and produce feelings of euphoria, but they also carry a high risk of addiction, overdose, and respiratory depression.

oxytocin

A hormone and neurotransmitter often called the "love hormone" or "bonding hormone".

Effect: Promotes social bonding, trust, maternal behavior, and childbirth by stimulating uterine contractions. It also plays a role in emotion regulation and pair bonding.

reflex arc

The pathway that a signal follows to produce a reflex action.

Effect: Involves a quick, automatic response to a stimulus, bypassing the brain. The signal travels from a sensory receptor to the spinal cord, then to a motor neuron to produce a response (e.g., pulling your hand away from a hot surface).

refractory period

The brief period after a neuron fires when it cannot fire again or requires a stronger stimulus to do so.

Effect: Ensures that action potentials only travel in one direction and helps regulate the rate of neural firing.

reuptake inhibitor

A substance that blocks the reabsorption (reuptake) of neurotransmitters back into the neuron.

Effect: Increases the amount of neurotransmitters in the synapse, enhancing or prolonging their effect (e.g., SSRIs for serotonin in depression).

sensory neurons

Nerve cells that carry sensory information from sensory receptors (e.g., skin, eyes, ears) to the central nervous system (CNS).

Effect: Convert external stimuli (like light, sound, or touch) into electrical signals that the brain processes as sensations.

serotonin

A neurotransmitter involved in mood regulation, sleep, and appetite.

Effect: Contributes to feelings of well-being and happiness. Low levels are associated with depression, anxiety, and sleep disorders.

stimulant

A class of drugs that speed up messages traveling through the body and brain.

Effect: they can make a person feel more awake or alert. Includes cocaine and nicotine.

substance p

A neurotransmitter involved in pain perception and inflammation.

Effect: Transmits pain signals from the body to the brain and plays a role in the body’s response to stress and injury.

tolerance

The reduced effect of a drug after repeated use.

Effect: Requires larger doses of the substance to achieve the same effect, often leading to physical dependence or addiction.

withdrawal

The physical and mental symptoms that occur when a person stops or reduces the use of a substance they are dependent on.

Effect: Can include symptoms like anxiety, tremors, nausea, and irritability, depending on the substance and level of dependence.

amygala

Location: Deep in the temporal lobe, part of the limbic system.

Function: Processes emotions, especially fear and pleasure; forms emotional memories.

blindsight

the ability to respond to visual stimuli without consciously perceiving them. This condition can occur after certain types of brain damage.

brain plasticity

the brain's ability to reorganize and form new connections.

brainstem/medulla

Location: Base of the brain, connects to the spinal cord.

Function: Controls basic life functions (breathing, heart rate, etc.).

broca’s area

Location: Left frontal lobe.

Function: Speech production.

cerebellum

Location: Below the occipital lobe.

Function: Coordinates movement, balance.

cerebrum

Location: Largest part of the brain.

Function: Higher functions (thinking, sensation, movement).