AP Psychology - Brain Part 1

This includes flashcards with vocabulary of the first 47 terms out of the 86 total (the rest of which being in part 2). NOTE: This goes deeply in-depth and is not purely vocabulary. For only surface level (term-definition) vocabulary flashcards, go here: https://knowt.com/flashcards/1e9b8e05-299a-4337-baf7-a33ae2ce20d3

Psychology’s biggest and most persistent issue…

Are our human traits present at birth, or do they develop through experience?

Nature-Nurture

Controversy over the relative contributions that genes (nature) and environment (nurture) make to the development of psychological traits and behavior.

Today’s science views traits and behaviors as arising from the __________ of nature AND nurture.

INTERACTION

Today’s science views traits and behaviors as arising from the interaction of ______ AND ______.

nature; nurture

Evolutionary Psychology

Study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.

Natural selection

Inherited traits enabling an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment and reproduce in a particular environment will most likely be passed on succeeding generations.

“_____ deals the cards and ______ plays the hand.”

nature; nurture

What is the best way to really study genetics?

Twins

What is an example of twins being used to “really study genetics”?

Minnesota Twin Studies (University of Minnesota): 20 year study (1979 - 1999) with 137 pairs of twins (81 identical pairs & 56 fraternal); notable pair is the “Jim Twins” with “eerily similar lives.”

Identical twins

Develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two and are genetically identical.

Although identical twins have the same genes…

They don’t always have the same number of copies. This could explain why one might have a higher risk of certain illnesses and disorders.

Fraternal twins

Develop from separate fertilized eggs but share a fetal environment.

Although fraternal twins share a womb…

They are genetically no more similar than ordinary siblings.

The Nervous System

Made up of neurons, or nerve cells, that communicate via chemical messengers called neurotransmitters.

The Nervous System

This communication network (nervous system) takes in information from the world and the body’s tissues, makes decisions, and sends back information and orders to the body’s tissues.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System

Everything but the brain and spinal cord.

What does the peripheral nervous system do?

Connects the Central Nervous System (CNS) to the rest of the body.

What is the Peripheral Nervous System divided into?

Two categories: somatic and autonomic.

Somatic Nervous System

Controls voluntary muscle movement using motor neurons.

Autonomic Nervous System

Controls the automatic (self-regulating) functions of the body. (EX: glands and internal organ muscles, such as heart and breathing.)

What is the Autonomic Nervous System divided into?

Two categories: sympathetic and parasympathetic.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Fight or Flight Response

What does the Sympathetic Nervous System do?

Automatically accelerates heart rate, raises blood pressure, raises your blood sugar, cools you with sweat, breathing, dilates pupils, slows down digestion to get you ready for action.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Automatically slows the body down after a stressful event (think of parachute slowing a person’s descent down).

What does the Parasympathetic Nervous System do?

Heart rate and breathing slow down, pupils constrict, and digestion speeds up.

Reflexes

Automatic responses to stimuli.

Normally, sensory neurons take info up through spine to the brain. What is different about reflexes?

Some reactions (Ex: pain) occur when sensory neurons reach just the spinal cords and activates the motor neurons; survival adaptation.

Characteristics of the Brain

Weighs around 3 pounds; has a pinkish-white color and has the consistency of firm Jell-O; has about 1 trillion cells.

The brain has about 1 trillion cells that can be divided into two groups:

Neurons and Glial cells

Neurons

Nerve cells that number over 100 billion

Neurons are nerve cells with two specialized extensions:

Receiving electrical signals; transmitting electrical signals.

Depending on their size, neurons receive and transmit electrical signals at speeds up to ___ miles per hour.

200

Human brains have a ______ capacity to replace, rewire, or repair damaged, such as after a stroke, gunshot wound, or blow to the head.

limited

Cell body (soma)

Part of the neuron that contains the nucleus and the cell’s life-support center; aka gray matter.

Dendrites

Neurons’ bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages; “Axons speak, dendrites listen.”

Axon

Neuron extension that helps pass messages; “Axons speak, dendrites listen.”

Myelin sheath

Fatty tissues layer encasing the axon and enables greater transmission speed; laid down up to about 25 enabling natural efficiency.

If the myelin sheath degenerates, this deterioration leads to….

diminished control and slower reaction time.

In extreme cases of myelin sheath degeneration, it results in…

the disease known as Multiple Sclerosis (MS).

Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

Communication to muscles and brain region slows and results in diminished muscle control and sometime impaired cognition.

Myasthenia Gravis

Causes muscles under your voluntary control to feel weak, possible paralysis, and get tired quickly.

When does Myasthenia Gravis occur?

When communication between neurons and muscles breaks down.

Action Potential

A neuron sends a message by firing on impulse; a brief electrical charge that fires down the axon.

Ions

Electrically-charged atoms

Outside of the axon is mostly…

Positively-charged ions (Sodium)

Inside the axon is mostly…

Negatively-charged ions (Potassium)

Resting Potential

When a neuron fires, the first section of the axon opens its gates and the positively-charged ions (attracted to the negative ions) flood through.

Depolarization

The loss of the inside/outside charge difference causes the next section of the axon channels to open and then next, like a domino effect.

Transfer of ions across the axon’s membrane causes ______ charge to keep moving.

electrical (electrical inside and chemical outside)

Neurons have two types of signals:

Excitatory (most often) and Inhibitory

Excitatory

Pushing the accelerator

Inhibitory

Pushing the brakes

Threshold

The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse (neurons need short breaks; 1ms).

Refractory Period

A briefing resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state.

All-or-none response

Neurons either fire or don’t fire; cannot partially fire.

Motor Neurons

Takes information from brain and spinal cord to the rest of the body.

Interneurons

Neurons within the brain and spinal cord that process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs; the “middle man”.

There are _____ interneurons compared to _______ of motor and sensory neurons.

billions; millions

Sensory Neurons

Takes information from the body to the brain and spinal cord for processing.

Reflex Arc

Neural pathway that controls a reflex; the three types of neurons (motor, inter, and sensory) work together in the spinal cord (not the brain) to cause a reflex to occur.

Mirror Neurons

Automatically put us in somebody else’s shoes; we read other people’s minds and empathize with them. They mirror what other people are doing. (EX: You see someone yawn and you yawn or smiling and you smile; You see spiders in movies and feel them crawling up your arm; Watching your favorite athlete and your heart races; Seeing someone in pain and you feel their pain; Seeing an embarrassing scene in a movie and you get embarrassed.)

Acetylcholine (ACH)

Deals with motor movement, thought, learning, and memory.

A lack of Acetylcholine ACH has been linked to…

Alzheimer’s disease.

The neurotransmitter molecules has a molecular structure that precisely fits the ___________ on the receiving neuron; like a key that fits a lock.

Receptor site

For an instant, the neurotransmitter unlocks tiny channels at the receiving site, and electrically charged atoms flow in, ________ or _______ the receiving neuron’s readiness to fire.

Exciting; inhibiting

Reuptake

The excess neurotransmitters finally drift away to be either broken down by enzymes or reabsorbed by the sending neuron.

In reuptake, the excess neurotransmitters finally drift away to be either broken down by ______ or _______ by the sending neuron; EX: some antidepressant medications partially block the reuptake mood-enhancing neurotransmitters.

enzymes; reabsorbed

Dopamine

Deals with voluntary motor movement and motivation; feelings of rewards (pleasure) and motivation.

People tend to repeat behaviors that lead to dopamine release (______)

addiction

Lack of dopamine has been linked to ______________.

Parkinson’s disease

Too much dopamine has been linked to ____________.

Schizophrenia

Serotonin

Involved in regulating sleep, wakefulness, and digestive system; plays a role in perception as well; involved in mood control.

Lack of serotonin has been linked to clinical ___________.

Depression

Endorphins

Involved in perception of pain and pleasure; released during exercise, excitement, and sex.

Many of our most addictive drugs deal with endorphins (_______ and ______)

Opioids; heroine

Glutamate

Most common neurotransmitter; main excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain; activates the nervous system and appears to be involved in learning and memory.

Oversupply of glutamate can overstimulate the brain, producing ______ or ______.

Migraines; seizures

Norepinephrine

Affects alertness and regulates physical and mental arousal.

What neurotransmitter contracts blood vessels, increasing blood flow?

Norepinephrine

An increased secretion of norepinephrine _____ the heart rate and blood pressure.

raises

Undersupply of norepinephrine can _______ mood.

Depress

GABA

The main inhibitory neurotransmitter that slow down the activities of the neurons in order to prevent them from getting over excited.

When neurons get over excited, it can lead to _______.

Anxiety

GABA can help prevent _______.

Anxiety

A ___ level of GABA can be linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia.

low

Substance P

Involved in pain perception and immune response

Substance P ______ interactions between neurons and immune cells.

mediates

Oversupply of Substance P can lead to chronic ____.

pain